Introduction to Anthropology

• Anthropology is the science which comes

nearest to the total study of man.
Anthropologists study human behaviour not
concerned with particular men as such but
with men in "groups", with races and peoples
and their happenings and doings.
• So, anthropology may be defined briefly as the
"science of groups of men".
 Meaning of Anthropology

• The word "anthropology" has been derived from two

Greek words, anthropos (man) and logus (study or
science). Anthropology is, thus, the science of man. This
etymological meaning, of course, is too broad and
general. More precisely, anthropology may be called "the
science of man and his works and behaviour".
• Anthropologists are interested in all aspects of the
human species and human behaviour, in all places and at
all times, from the origin and evolution of the species
through its prehistoric civilizations down to the present
situation.
 …
• Anthropology studies various aspects of man. The
physiologist studies the processes of life of an individual
only. Similarly the psychologist deals with the mental
conditions of man. The pathologist investigates the
pathological conditions or diseases of man.
• Economics deals with the household management and
fulfillment of the needs of man or in the broad sense,
production, distribution and consumption of wealth.
The sociologist discusses the social groups and
institutions and their interrelationships and various
social problems.
 …
• Anthropology is both a biological and a social
science. It deals on the one hand with man as
a member of the animal kingdom and on the
other with man's behaviour as a member of
society.
• Both the structural evolution of mankind and
the growth of civilization are studied from the
earliest times of which any record survives to
the present.
 Definitions of Anthropology
• The concise oxford dictionary “study of mankind
especially of its societies and customs; study of structure
and evolution of man as an animal”
• Krober “Anthropology is the science of groups of men
and their behaviour and production”
• Herkovits “ Anthropology may be defined as the
measurement of human beings’
• Jocob and Stern “ Anthropology is the scientific study of
the physical, social, and cultural development and
behaviour of human beings since their appearance on
this earth.
 Characteristic of Anthropology

• study of human beings.

• scientific process.
• explain human diversity.
• Tendency to make generalization.
 Nature, Scope and Fields of Anthropology;

• Different anthropologist concentrates on different

characteristics of the anthropology.
• Some Anthropologist has given emphasized on the
physical characteristic and others have given the
cultural characteristics of the anthropology.
1. Study of mankind as a whole
2. Concept of culture
3. Use of comparative method
4. Based on field study method
5. Culture is the focus point of anthropology
 Scope of Anthropology

(a) Physical Anthropology :Physical anthropology studies the

human body, genetics and the status of man among living
beings. As the name indicates, it studies the physical
characteristics of man. It uses the general principles of
biology and utilizes the findings of anatomy, physiology,
embryology, zoology, paleontology and so on.
Today physical or biological anthropology encompasses the
following:
the study of evolutionary biology and human genetics hominid
evolution to understand the origin of modern humans
biological differences in human populations
a bio-cultural overview on human growth and development.
scope
…
 …
• (b) Cultural Anthropology
 …
Scope of physical Anthropology:
Physical Anthropology deals mainly with:
Human biology
1. Human evolution
2. Human variation and
3. Human genetics.
 Human Biology

• Physical/ biological anthropology is the study

of the past and present evolution of the
human species and is especially concerned
with understanding the causes of present
human diversity.
• Human biology broadly covers the areas of
modern human biological variation, human
ecology, nutrition and demography.
 Human Evolution

• Like other creatures man is also a living organism. It is

difficult to explain under what conditions life had
appeared on earth.
• But from the geological and palaeontological evidences
it has been known that the first living organism that had
appeared on earth consisted of one cell only, which is
known as a unicellular organism or amoeba. In course
of time this simple homogeneous organism through the
process of changes attained the heterogeneous form at
various stages. Ultimately, a complex form of animal
called man had emerged.
 Human Variation

• The physical anthropologist after having studies the origin,

development and place of evolution of man focuses his
attention on the study of the different varieties of man.
• Outwardly through they appear different, all men have some
common characteristics and belong to the species - Homo-
sapiens. However, it is generally found that the common
hereditary does not resemble those of other groups in
various ways. Each of these groups is designated as race.
• So, in Physical Anthropology the different aspects of race are
studied. Somatology - Somato-scopic observation and
anthropometry is useful for this purpose.
 …
• Human biology essentially means the study of
human variation. Variation is produced by the
inheritance of particular characteristics from
ancestors and by the action of environment.
Thus the effects of genes and environment are
taken into account in the study of human
variation.
 Human Genetics

• According to E.C. Colin, “genetics is that branch of

biology which deals with laws of principles of
heredity and variations as observed in plants, in
animals and in man. Human genetics, the study of
human heredity, understand the human physical
characteristics transmitted through the process of
heredity from one generation to another
generation.” (Das, 1996: 3-4).
• Human genetics provides a theoretical framework
for understanding the biology of the human species.
 Cultural Anthropology
• Cultural Anthropology deals with learned
behavioral characteristics of the past, present
and future of human societies.
• Now, the main fields of studies under Cultural
Anthropology are: Prehistoric archaeology,
ethnology and ethno-linguistics. Under
ethnology again economic anthropology, social
anthropology, ethnography, religion, art,
musicology, recreation, folklore etc. are studied.
 …
• Prehistoric Archaeology: The first hand
knowledge about the extinct peoples and their
cultures and the past phases of living peoples.
The pre-historians enlighten us with how the
prehistoric people coped with the natural
setting by making tools and implements,
weapons and other necessary equipments in
order to serve their biological and psychological
needs such as food, clothing, art etc.
• Archaeology: Archaeologists study human culture by
analyzing the objects people have made and left
behind. They carefully remove from the ground such
things as pottery and tools, and they map the locations
of houses, trash pits, and burials in order to learn about
the daily lives of a people. They also analyze human
bones and teeth to gain information on a people’s diet
and the diseases they suffered. The time range for
archaeological research begins with the earliest human
ancestors millions of years ago and extends to the
present day.
 Paleontology

• Paleontology which is closely associated with

prehistory and helpful to make a study on the
extinct races from their fossilized forms. It tells
us how the modern races have evolved from
those extinct fossil races. . It tells us how the
modern races have evolved from those extinct
fossil races.
 Ethnology
• Ethnology is another field of study under
Cultural Anthropology. It made its appearance
as a recognized branch in about 1840 and it
developed very greatly during the next
hundred years. It makes a comparative study
of the cultures of the world and emphasizes
the theory of culture. It is often called Cultural
Anthropology and sometimes used as
synonym for Anthropology also.
 Ethnography
• Ethnography is the study of the cultures of the
living peoples of the world through direct and
indirect observation of behaviour.
Ethnography is not the study of races, which is
the work of the physical anthropologist. It
involves the collection of data only, the raw
materials for scientific analysis.
 Economic Anthropology

• The anthropologist studies under Economic Anthropology

the different means of subsistence of man. He studies
different features of production, distribution and
consumption of material goods and their relationships
with other aspects of the socio-cultural complex.
• The anthropologist studies what man produces, how he
produces, what and how he consumes and what and how
he distributes or exchanges. He also analyses how far the
economic factors are responsible to the growth of socio-
cultural system of a people. For the most part, studies in
economic anthropology focus on exchange.
 Social anthropology
• Social anthropology is the study of human
society and cultures. Social anthropologists
seek to understand how people live in
societies and how they make their lives
meaningful.
• So the social anthropologist studies various
aspects of society in keeping with the cultural
development.
 …
• Generally speaking, social anthropology aims to
study human society as a whole. It is a holistic
study necessarily and covers all parts related to
human society. Culture comes naturally under
this, as it is an integral part of human society.
• So, the basic aim of social anthropology is to
study human being as a social animal. Thus, to
fulfill its aim it explores, in a broad area, covering
almost every aspects of human social life.
 Anthropometry

• Anthropometry is the science of measuring

the different limbs of the body. It is an
inevitable part of Physical Anthropology, and
with its help various measurements of the
limbs of the body are taken so as to know the
proportions of the limbs.
Anthropology and Other Social Sciences

• Anthropology and History: The historians are more

interested in particular sequences of past events.
Anthropologists are centrally interested in
understanding the present conditions of culture or
community which they are studying. But the two
disciplines have a close relationship.
• John Beattie (1964) mentions that history may be
important to social anthropologists; not only as an
account of past events leading up to and explaining
the present.
 …
• They share the same subject, which is social
life; the same goal, which is a better
understanding of man; and, in fact, the same
method, in which only the proportion of
research techniques varies.
 Anthropology and Economics

• Economics is one of the oldest and theoretically

most sophisticated disciplines in comparison to
anthropology. But, like other social sciences,
economics developed to investigate particular
domains of human behavior and work mainly in
advanced societies. In small-scale societies
wherein the anthropologists mainly study,
there may not be distinct economic transaction
as found in the advanced societies.
 …
• The subject matter of economics has been
defined as economizing - the rational
allocation of scarce means (resources) among
alternative ends (uses). In the west, the goal
of maximizing profit - the profit motive - is
assumed to guide economic decision making.
Studying cross-culturally, the anthropologists
find variation in the motivations.
 …
• Anthropologists know motives other than the
desire for personal gain for making economic
decisions in different cultures. And, in recent
decades, fewer social-cultural anthropologists
have tried to borrow some general ideas from
economics; others strongly feel that it would be
irrelevant to explain economic behavior of small-
scale (pre-industrial) societies in terms of formal
economics which were developed for the
industrial societies.
Anthropology and Political Science
• Political science developed to investigate particular domain of
human behavior. It also works mainly in modern nations. In
small-scale societies where social anthropology grew up, politics
generally do not stand out as distinct activities to separate
analysis, as they do in modern society. Rather they are
submerged or embedded in the general social order. . There is no
formal authority figure.
• People generally follow orders of their kin rather than formal
leaders. Studying political organizations cross-culturally,
anthropologists find out a wide range of various political and
legal systems. It is found that legal codes along with ideas of
crime and punishment, means of resolving conflicts vary
substantially from culture to culture.
 Anthropology and Psychology
• Psychology has relationship with Anthropology.
Anthropology studies the history of human race, the
evolution of mankind, and the development of human
civilization. It is concerned with the social problems of
primitive man and their culture, tradition, customs, and
manners.
• Psychology studies how these cultural factors influence
the human behaviour. Particularly, the cross-cultural
psychologists draw from the knowledge base of the
anthropologists to understand the unique features and
influences of a culture.
 …
• They use the methods of the anthropologists. So the
study of anthropology facilitates the study of psychology.
• Similarly, the knowledge of abnormal and social
psychology helps the anthropologists in explaining the
man, his religion, and culture. Moreover, psychological
techniques are applied for the comparative study of
culture.
• Both social anthropology and psychology deal with the
same basic subject matter.
• Thus, there is a close relationship between anthropology
and psychology.
 Branches of Anthropology

1. Physical anthropology
2. Cultural anthropology
Sub-divisions of Anthropology
1. Economic Anthropology
2. Ecological Anthropology
3. Medical Anthropology
4. Political Anthropology
5. Development anthropology
 Physical Anthropology
• Physical anthropology is defined as the branch of anthropology
that is concerned with man as a biological organism.
• Physical anthropology deals with the origin of man, the
comparative study of racial and sub racial groups, the
measurement and classification of anatomical differences
among men, problems of heredity, the influence of differences
in the physical environment on the human organism and the
interrelationship between biological and cultural differences
among men.
• Physical anthropology is sometimes referred to as somatic
anthropology or as somatology (Physical nature of human
beings).
 Cultural anthropology
• Cultural anthropology is the study of the culture and
social structure of a community or society. Cultural
anthropology emphasizes the understanding of the
total configuration and interrelationships of cultural
traits, complexes and social relationships in a
particular geographic environment and historical
context. Thus it is concerned with the influence of
geographic and historical as well as social and
psychological factors in the analysis of the
development of a culture, its present characteristics
and the change it is undergoing.
 Origin and Historical Development of
Anthropology
The process of Human culture, physical structure, ritual ,ways of life
style and various aspect of human life were began to study with
human evolution.
There was debate about the origin of man that was the creation of
man by God or the progress of biological evolution, at that time
the process of systematic study of human being was begin.
Aristotle who used the word ‘anthropology’ at first time and
Immanuel Kant published a book anthropology.
The systematic study of anthropology was begin after E.B. Tylor
published ‘the primitive culture in 1871.
Tylor not only mentioned that culture the core subject matter of
anthropology, he scientifically defined the anthropology.
 …
• Anthropologist have their own view about the
origin and development stage of anthropology.
• T.K. Penniman who wrote the book ‘The hundred
years of Anthropology-1955’, he mentioned the
four phases of development of anthropology.
1. Formulatory period-before 1835
2. Convergent period from 1835-1859
3. Constructive period from 1859-1900
4. Critical period from 1901-1935
 …
1 Formulatory Periods – before 1835: During
this period the social facts and themes were
variously discussed by the Greek social thinkers
and philosophers, among them special mention
may be made of Herodotus (484-425 B.C.),
Democritus (460-370 B.C.), Protagoras (480-
410 B.C.), Socrates (470-399 B.C.), Plato (427-
347 B.C.), Aristotle (348-322 B.C.), Epicurus
(341-270 B.C.), Lucretius (99-55 B.C.) etc.
 …
2 Convergent Period -- from 1835 to 1859
During this period divergent views about the
origin of biological and social aspects of
human beings, by scholars of different
countries, were expressed which ultimately
shaped the theories of culture. Among these
scholars special mention may be made of
Marx (1818-1883), Charles Lyell (1797- 1895),
William Smith (1769-1839) etc.
 …
• Constructive Period – from 1859 to 1900 After the end of
convergent period, which virtually disappeared with the
publications of Darwin‘s ―Origin of Species‖ the constructive
phase of the world anthropology started, which, according to
Penniman, continued will 1900 A.D. During this period,
anthropology, not only as an independent discipline of
teaching and research, was started in many British Universities
like Oxford (in 1884), Cambridge (in 1900), etc., but scientific
researches and publications thereon were accelerated by E.B.
Tylor, James Frazer, Henry Maine, J.F. Mc Lennan, Adolf Bastian,
L.H. Morgan and others, which ultimately strengthened the
subject for wider recognition all over the world.
 …
• During this period various types of anthropological researches led to
the formation of different branches of anthropology like ethnology,
prehistory, social anthropology, physical anthropology etc.
• 4 Critical Period – from 1901 to 1935 Penniman used the word
―Critical‖ for a period ranging from 1900 onwards till the publications
of his book ―Hundred Years of Anthropology‖ in 1935. His term
―Critical‖ for explaining the trend of researchers after 1900 has been
subject of severe criticism and many of these critics argued that
constructive works in anthropology continued even first half of the
twentieth century.
• However, some significant developments took place during this place
which were of critical name and, therefore, considering their
significance, Penniman designated these phase of development as
critical period.
 Uses of Anthropology
• Applied Anthropology is the application of
anthropological knowledge to solve problems and
issues related to humans and their culture.
• The concept of ‘Applied Anthropology’ was
developed in United States particularly after the
Second World War. It contributed in administration
and development policy in the third world.
• Applied anthropologists in general tried to improve
the lives of the people who were in a
disadvantageous position in the modern world
 …
• Applied Anthropology refers to the application of
anthropological perspectives, theories, methods and data to
identify issues and understand social problems. It also helps
to show the way for solution.
• Applied anthropologists represent all the four sub-fields -
• biological, archaeological, linguistic and cultural anthropology.
• They are also called practicing anthropologists. They also work
for non-academic clients such as NGOs, ethnic associations
and business groups. They work for the groups that promote,
manage and assess different programmes for enhancing
human social conditions.
 …
• The practical application of Anthropology can
be seen in all the four subfields.
• Biological anthropologists work in public
health, nutrition, genetic counseling,
substance abuse, epidemiology, ageing,
mental illness and forensics.
• Applied archaeologists locate, study and
preserve pre-historic and historic sites
threatened by development.
 …
• Cultural anthropologists work with social workers,
business people, advertising professionals, factory
workers, medical professionals, school personnel
and economic development experts.
• The application of Linguistic Anthropology could
be seen in the reconstruction of endangered
languages, and in the area of media and
communication studies, and in the contextual
interpretation of languages and cultures.
 …
• Applied Anthropology has very important role
in solving the family problems in patrilineal
dominant societies and caste-based societies.
• The role of anthropologists now-a-days has
been enhanced to the extent of considering
them as consultants in various development
programmes.