Introduction to Finite Element

Methods
• Virtually every phenomenon in nature—
whether aerospace, biological, chemical,
geological, or mechanical—can be described,
with the aid of the laws and axioms of physics
or other fields, in terms of algebraic,
differential, and/or integral equations relating
various quantities that describe the
phenomenon.
• Determining the stress distribution in a pressure
vessel with oddly shaped holes and stiffeners and
subjected to mechanical, thermal, and/or
aerodynamic loads;

• finding the concentration of pollutants in lakes or in

the atmosphere;

• and simulating weather in an attempt to understand

and predict the formation of thunderstorms, tsunamis,
and tornadoes are a few examples of many important
practical problems that engineers deal with
 Mathematical
models…
• Analytical descriptions of physical or
physiological processes in terms of pertinent
variables are termed mathematical models.

• Mathematical models of a process are

developed using assumptions concerning how
the process works and using appropriate
axioms or laws governing the process,
• And they are often characterized by very
complex set of algebraic, differential, and/or
integral equations posed on geometrically
complicated domains
 Mathematical
models
• A mathematical model can be broadly defined as a
set of equations that expresses the essential
features of a physical system in terms of variables
that describe the system.
• The mathematical models of physical phenomena
are often based on fundamental scientific laws of
physics such as the
• principle of conservation of mass,
• the principles of balance of linear and angular
momentum,
• and the principle of balance of energy
• The equations resulting from these principles are
supplemented by equations that describe the
constitutive behavior
• And by boundary and/or initial conditions.
 Simple
pendulum

• Assumptions:
• bob as well as the rod are rigid (i.e., not
deformable) and the rod is massless.
• there is no friction at the pivot point o and the
resistance offered by the surrounding medium
to the pendulum is also negligible.
• The equation governing the motion of the system can be
formulated using the principle of conservation of linear
momentum (or simply Newton’s second law),
• which states, in the present case, that the vector sum of
externally applied forces on a system is equal to the time
rate of change of the linear momentum (mass times
velocity) of the system:
• To write the equation governing the angular motion, we set
up a coordinate system, as shown in Fig.
• Angular motion becomes

• Above Equation is nonlinear on account of the term sinθ

• For small angular motions sinθ is approximated as sinθ ≈ θ
(i.e., linearized).
• Thus, the angular motion is described by the linear
differential equation
• Above Equations represent mathematical
models of nonlinear and linear motions,
respectively, of a rigid pendulum.
• Their solution requires knowledge of conditions
at time t =0 on θ and its time derivative θ
(angular velocity). These conditions are known
as the initial conditions.
• Thus, the linear problem involves solving the
differential equation

• subjected to the initial conditions

• The problem described by above is called an

initialvalue problem (IVP).
• The general analytical solution of the linear equation

• (ӫ + λ2θ = 0) is

• where A and B are constants of integration, which can

be determined using the initial conditions
 Numerical
method
• There are several reasons why an engineer or a
scientist should study a numerical method,
especially the finite element method.

• Analysis of most practical systems involve

complicated domains (both geometry and
material constitution), loads, boundary
conditions, and interactions between various
aspects of the system response that forbid the
development of analytical solutions. Therefore,
the only alternative is to find approximate
solutions using numerical methods.
 Numerical
Methods..
• A numerical method, with the advent of a computer, can
be used to investigate the effects of various parameters
(e.g., geometry, material parameters, loads, interactions,
and so on) of the system on its response to gain a better
understanding of the system being analyzed.
• It is cost effective and saves time and material resources
compared to the multitude of physical experiments
required to gain the same level of understanding.
• Because of the power of numerical methods and
electronic computation, it is possible to include most
relevant features in a mathematical model of a physical
process, without worrying about its solution by exact
means.
• The finite element method and its generalizations are
the most powerful computer methods ever devised to
analyze practical engineering systems.
• Today, finite element analysis is an integral and
major component in many fields of engineering
design and manufacturing.
• Major established industries such as the automobile,
aerospace, chemical, pharmaceutical, petroleum,
electronics and communications, as well as
emerging technologies such as nanotechnology and
biotechnology rely on the finite element method to
simulate complex phenomena at different scales for
design and manufacture of high-technology products.
• The use of a numerical method and a
computer to evaluate the mathematical model
of a process and estimate its characteristics
is called a numerical simulation.
• Any numerical simulation, such as the one by
the finite element method, is not an end in
itself but rather an aid to design and
manufacturing.
 Finite Element Method
Defined
• Many problems in engineering and applied science
are governed by differential or integral equations.

• The solutions to these equations would provide an

exact, closed-form solution to the particular problem
being studied.

•
Examples of Discritezation

One dimensional Two dimensional Three dimensional

with line element With triangular elements with brick elements
 Finite Element Method
Defined
• Many problems in engineering and applied science
are governed by differential or integral equations.

• The solutions to these equations would provide an

exact, closed-form solution to the particular problem
being studied.
 FINITE ELEMENT
MODELLING
• Realistic problems are complex
and strongly nonlinear. Difficult to
analyze and computationally
intensive
• In real world problems
complexities exists in terms of
• geometry,
• material properties and
• in the boundary conditions
• means that an exact solution
cannot be obtained.
 Need for Computational
Methods
• Therefore a Gap Exists Between What Is Needed in
Applications and What Can Be Solved by Analytical
Closed-form Methods

• This Has Lead to the Development of Several

Numerical/Computational Schemes Including:
• Finite Difference,
• Finite Element and
• Boundary Element Methods
 WHAT IS FINITE ELEMENT
METHOD
 The finite element method is a computational
scheme to solve field problems in
engineering and science.

 These complex field problems in engineering and

applied science are governed by partial
differential equations.

 The partial differential equations are

transformed into algebraic equations.
Algebraic equations are cast into matrix form
which can be solved with computers.
 WHAT IS FINITE ELEMENT
METHOD

• The technique has very wide application, and

has been used on problems involving
• stress analysis,
• fluid mechanics,
• heat transfer,
• diffusion,
• vibrations,
• lectrical and magnetic fields, etc.
• The fundamental concept involves dividing
the body under study into a finite number of
pieces (subdomains) called elements .
Examples of Discritezation

One dimensional Two dimensional Three dimensional

with line element With triangular elements with brick elements
• Particular assumptions are then made on the
variation of the unknown dependent
variable(s) across each element using so-
called interpolation or approximation
functions.

• This approximated variation is quantified in

terms of solution values at special element
locations called nodes.
• Through this discretization process, the
method sets up an algebraic system of
equations for unknown nodal values which
approximate the continuous solution.

• Because element size, shape and

approximating scheme can be varied to suit
the problem, the method can accurately
simulate solutions to problems of complex
geometry and loading and thus this technique
has become a very useful and practical tool.
 Finite Element Method Defined
(cont.)

• Current product design cycle times imply that engineers

must obtain design solutions in a ‘short’ amount of time.

• They are content to obtain approximate solutions that can

be readily obtained in a reasonable time frame, and with
reasonable effort. The FEM is one such approximate
solution technique.

• The FEM is a numerical procedure for obtaining

approximate solutions to many of the problems encountered
in engineering analysis.
 Finite Element Method Defined
(cont.)
• In the FEM, a complex region defining a continuum is
discretized into simple geometric shapes called elements.

• The properties and the governing relationships are assumed

over these elements and expressed mathematically in terms of
unknown values at specific points in the elements called nodes.

• An assembly process is used to link the individual elements

to the given system. When the effects of loads and boundary
conditions are considered, a set of linear or nonlinear algebraic
equations is usually obtained.

• Solution of these equations gives the approximate behavior of

the continuum or system.
 Finite Element Method Defined
(cont.)
• The continuum has an infinite number of degrees-of-freedom
(DOF), while the discretized model has a finite number of
DOF. This is the origin of the name, finite element method.

• The number of equations is usually rather large for most real-

world applications of the FEM, and requires the computational
power of the digital computer. The FEM has little practical
value if the digital computer were not available.

• Advances in and ready availability of computers and software

has brought the FEM within reach of engineers working in
small industries, and even students.
 Finite Element Method Defined
(cont.)
Two features of the finite element method are worth noting.

• The piecewise approximation of the physical field

(continuum) on finite elements provides good precision even
with simple approximating functions. Simply increasing the
number of elements can achieve increasing precision.

• The locality of the approximation leads to sparse equation

systems for a discretized problem. This helps to ease the
solution of problems having very large numbers of nodal
unknowns. It is not uncommon today to solve systems
containing a million primary unknowns.
 Origins of the Finite Element
Method
• It is difficult to document the exact origin of the FEM, because the
basic concepts have evolved over a period of 150 or more years.

• The term finite element was first coined by Clough in 1960. In the
early 1960s, engineers used the method for approximate solution of
problems in stress analysis, fluid flow, heat transfer, and other
areas.

• The first book on the FEM by Zienkiewicz and Chung was

published in 1967.

• In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the FEM was applied to a wide
variety of engineering problems.
Origins of the Finite Element Method
(cont.)
• The 1970s marked advances in mathematical treatments, including
the development of new elements, and convergence studies.

• Most commercial FEM software packages originated in the 1970s

(ABAQUS, ADINA, ANSYS, MARK, PAFEC) and 1980s
(FENRIS, LARSTRAN ‘80, SESAM ‘80.)

• The FEM is one of the most important developments in

computational methods to occur in the 20th century. In just a few
decades, the method has evolved from one with applications in
structural engineering to a widely utilized and richly varied
computational approach for many scientific and technological areas.
 How can the FEM Help the Design
Engineer?
• The FEM offers many important advantages to the design engineer:

• Easily applied to complex, irregular-shaped objects composed

of several different materials and having complex boundary
conditions.

• Applicable to steady-state, time dependent and eigenvalue

problems.

• Applicable to linear and nonlinear problems.

• One method can solve a wide variety of problems, including

problems in solid mechanics, fluid mechanics, chemical
reactions, electromagnetics, biomechanics, heat transfer and
acoustics, to name a few.
How can the FEM Help the Design Engineer?
(cont.)
• General-purpose FEM software packages are available at
reasonable cost, and can be readily executed on
microcomputers, including workstations and PCs.

• The FEM can be coupled to CAD programs to facilitate solid

modeling and mesh generation.

• Many FEM software packages feature GUI interfaces, auto-

meshers, and sophisticated postprocessors and graphics to speed
the analysis and make pre and post-processing more user-
friendly.
 How can the FEM Help the Design
Organization?
• Simulation using the FEM also offers important business advantages to
the design organization:

• Reduced testing and redesign costs thereby shortening the product

development time.

• Identify issues in designs before tooling is committed.

• Refine components before dependencies to other components

prohibit changes.

• Optimize performance before prototyping.

• Discover design problems before litigation.

• Allow more time for designers to use engineering judgement, and

less time “turning the crank.”
 Theoretical Basis: Formulating Element
Equations
• Several approaches can be used to transform the physical
formulation of a problem to its finite element discrete analogue.

• If the physical formulation of the problem is described as a

differential equation, then the most popular solution method is
the Method of Weighted Residuals.

• If the physical problem can be formulated as the minimization

of a functional, then the Variational Formulation is usually
used.
 Theoretical Basis:
MWR
• One family of methods used to numerically solve
differential equations are called the methods of weighted
residuals (MWR).

• In the MWR, an approximate solution is substituted into

the differential equation. Since the approximate solution
does not identically satisfy the equation, a residual, or error
term, results.

Consider a differential equation

Dy’’(x) + Q = 0 (1)

Suppose that y = h(x) is an approximate solution to (1).

Substitution then gives Dh’’(x) + Q = R, where R is a
nonzero residual. The MWR then requires that

Wi(x)R(x) = 0 (2)

where Wi(x) are the weighting functions. The number of

weighting functions equals the number of unknown
 Theoretical Basis: Galerkin’s
Method
• There are several choices for the weighting
functions, Wi.

• In the Galerkin’s method, the weighting functions are

the same functions that were used in the
approximating equation.

• The Galerkin’s method yields the same results as the

variational method when applied to differential
equations that are self-adjoint.

• The MWR is therefore an integral solution method.

• Many readers may find it unusual to see a numerical

solution that is based on an integral formulation.
 Theoretical Basis: Variational
Method
• The variational method involves the integral of a
function that produces a number. Each new
function produces a new number.

• The function that produces the lowest number

has the additional property of satisfying a specific
differential equation.

• Consider the integral

D/2 y’’(x) - Qy]dx = 0. (1)

The numerical value of can be calculated given

a specific equation y = f(x). Variational calculus
shows that the particular equation y = g(x) which
yields the lowest numerical value for is the
solution to the differential equation
 Theoretical Basis: Variational Method
(cont.)
• In solid mechanics, the so-called Rayeigh-Ritz
technique uses the Theorem of Minimum Potential
Energy (with the potential energy being the
functional, ) to develop the element equations.

• The trial solution that gives the minimum value

of is the approximate solution.

• In other specialty areas, a variational principle

can usually be found.
 Sources of Error in the
• The three main sources FEM
of error in a typical FEM
solution are discretization errors, formulation errors
and numerical errors.

• Discretization error results from transforming the

physical system (continuum) into a finite element
model, and can be related to modeling the boundary
shape, the boundary conditions, etc.

Discretization error due to poor geometry Discretization error effectively eliminated.

representation.
 Sources of Error in the FEM
(cont.)
• Formulation error results from the use of elements that don't
precisely describe the behavior of the physical problem.
• Elements which are used to model physical problems for
which they are not suited are sometimes referred to as ill-
conditioned or mathematically unsuitable elements.
• For example a particular finite element might be formulated
on the assumption that displacements vary in a linear manner
over the domain. Such an element will produce no formulation
error when it is used to model a linearly varying physical
problem (linear varying displacement field in this example),
but would create a significant formulation error if it used to
represent a quadratic or cubic varying displacement field.
 Sources of Error in the FEM
(cont.)
• Numerical error occurs as a result of
numerical calculation procedures, and
includes truncation errors and round off
errors.
• Numerical error is therefore a problem mainly
concerning the FEM vendors and developers.
• The user can also contribute to the numerical
accuracy, for example, by specifying a
physical quantity, say Young’s modulus, E, to
an inadequate number of decimal places.
 Advantages of the Finite Element
Method
• Can readily handle complex geometry:
» The heart and power of the FEM.
• Can handle complex analysis types:
» Vibration
» Transients
» Nonlinear
» Heat transfer
» Fluids
• Can handle complex loading:
» Node-based loading (point loads).
» Element-based loading (pressure, thermal,
inertial forces).
» Time or frequency dependent loading.
• Can handle complex restraints:
» Indeterminate structures can be analyzed.
Advantages of the Finite Element Method
(cont.)
• Can handle bodies comprised of nonhomogeneous
materials:
» Every element in the model could be assigned a
different set of material properties.
• Can handle bodies comprised of nonisotropic materials:
» Orthotropic
» Anisotropic
• Special material effects are handled:
» Temperature dependent properties.
» Plasticity
» Creep
» Swelling
• Special geometric effects can be modeled:
» Large displacements.
» Large rotations.
» Contact (gap) condition.
 Disadvantages of the Finite Element
Method
• A specific numerical result is obtained for a specific
problem. A general closed-form solution, which would
permit one to examine system response to changes in
various parameters, is not produced.

• The FEM is applied to an approximation of the

mathematical model of a system (the source of so-called
inherited errors.)

• Experience and judgment are needed in order to construct

a good finite element model.

• A powerful computer and reliable FEM software are

essential.

• Input and output data may be large and tedious to prepare

and interpret.
 Disadvantages of the Finite Element Method
(cont.)
• Numerical problems:
» Computers only carry a finite number of
significant digits.
» Round off and error accumulation.
» Can help the situation by not attaching stiff
(small) elements to flexible (large) elements.
• Susceptible to user-introduced modeling errors:
» Poor choice of element types.
» Distorted elements.
» Geometry not adequately modeled.
• Certain effects not automatically included:
» Buckling
» Large deflections and rotations.
» Material nonlinearities .
» Other nonlinearities.