Illustrating Critical Thinking

using two language Skills:

Reading and writing
 Critical Thinking When Reading
• Critical reading is a form of reading that does not
take a text at face value, but involves an examination
of claims put forward in the text.
• When reading, you seek information and you are
confronted with different views which force you to
consider your own position, hence the reader is
converted to a writer. In other words, you assume
the role of the writer.
 What Critical Reading Involves
1. Identifying the line of reasoning in the text.
2. Critically evaluating the line of reasoning.
3. Identify the evidence.
4. Critically evaluate the evidence.
5. Evaluating the writer’s conclusion(s).
6. Evaluating whether the evidence supports the
conclusion(s)
 1. Identify the Line of Reasoning
• The line of reasoning is the main argument or position
being defended/ (put forward).
• It is the case being made, backed up by reasons, and
evidence, and leading to conclusions.
• A line of reasoning (argument) is a group of statements
including one or more premises and one conclusion.
• Is the line of reasoning clear? Is the case that is being
made backed up by evidence and examples leading to
conclusions?
Parts of an Argument
• An argument has 3 parts: conclusion, reasons, and evidence
1. Conclusion: What the author is persuading the reader to believe.
2. Reasons/ premises/ propositions/syllogisms/ assumptions: support
the conclusion; they persuade the reader to believe the conclusion.
3. Evidence: also supports conclusion with facts, statistics (numbers or
outcome), from experiment to avoid people questioning your reason.
How to identify the three parts of an
argument
• Arguments in a natural language are not usually presented in
standard form, so we need to extract the logical structure from the
language that is given or the text.
• To do this, we look at each of the claims in the argument and we ask
ourselves, is this the main point that the speaker/writer is trying to
convey, OR is this being offered as a reason to accept some other
claim OR is this being offered so that I should not question the
reason?
The claim that expresses the main point is the conclusion.
The claims that are functioning as reasons to accept the main point are the
premises.
The claims that are offered for you to believe/ not question the reasons are
the evidences.
Indicator words/phrases
• Some key words/phrases that indicate a Conclusion: therefore, so,
hence, thus, it follows that, as a result, consequently, etc.
• Some key words/phrases that indicate premises: since, if, because,
from which it follows, for these reasons, etc.
• Some key identifiers for evidence: facts, numbers, percentages,
references
However, some arguments have no indicator words of any kinds. In
this case you have to rely on your ability to analyse.
Example 1:
Bilingualism and multilingualism confer many benefits. Speakers of
more than one language have a better understanding of how
languages are structured because they can compare across two
different systems. People who speak only one language lack this
essential point of reference. In many cases, a second language can
help people to have a better understanding and appreciation of their
first language.
Answer
Conclusion: Red text
Premise: Blue text
Example 2
• Disease never comes without a cause. It is not fate or our stars,
nor is it often entirely due to factors beyond our control. Most
diseases are due to the simple outworking of the laws of cause
and effect; they are mainly the results of violations of the laws
of health. This is good news because it means that most health
problems are preventable, or at least can be postponed. Our
own choices can lead to better health and longer life or poor
health and early death.
Answer
Conclusion: Red text
Premise: Blue text
Example 3:
Parents should give their children the best chances in life,
so we should encourage parents to have babies in winter.
People born in the winter have the longest life expectancy
and the best chance of good health. Moreover, they are
most likely to succeed in sport, particularly football. A
study by the Association of Football Statisticians revealed
that 40% of the Africans in the Premier League were born
in winter, compared with just 15% in summer.
Answer:
Conclusion: Red text
Premises: Blue text
Evidence: Green text
Example (without indicator words):
We must reduce the amount of money we spend on space exploration.
Right now the enemy is launching a massive military build up, and we
need the additional money to purchase the military equipment to
match the anticipated increase in the enemy’s strength.
Example:
Conclusion: Red text
Premise: Blue text
Practice !
1. John will probably receive the next promotion since he has been
here the longest.
Question: Identify the conclusion and the premise.
2. There’s no way you’ll get the job. The job advertisement says you
need a high school diploma to apply.”
Question: What premise is assumed, but not explicitly stated, in this
argument?
a. The job requires a high school diploma.
b. You shouldn’t bother applying for the job.
c. You don’t have a high school diploma.
3. Huge cash prizes of over a K100 million! Your number has been
selected out of over 900,000 entries to win one of our cash
prizes! Ring now on this number and find out more.”
Question: Which is the assumed conclusion?
a. you have won K100 million.
b. you have won a large cash prize.
c. your number has been selected for a draw.
d. you should call the number to get the prize.

4. They are letting the criminal go on account of a technicality in

the search warrant. I think that’s just awful.
Question: Is this an argument?
2. Critically Evaluate the Line of Reasoning
 An argument can be evaluated in terms of whether it contains:
(a) Relevant reasons and sufficient reasons or propositions or
statements that strengthen or prove the argument?
(b) Logical progression. Are points made in the best logical order?.
(c) False premises
(d) Flawed reasoning/fallacies
 Check for statements that undermine the argument and check for
generalizations
• False premise: a starting point that is not proven or backed
up with evidence. That is you may state that there is no
argument. For example, “So it is raining heavily and this
building might collapse. But I don’t really care”.
• In this case there is no argument, or position being defended.
Or the article does not persuade us to believe or do anything.
• Flawed reasoning: This refers to false connections between
points. This is also referred to as fallacies. The lack of logic in
an argument is what is called a fallacy. Fallacy refers to many
types of errors, mistakes, and confusions in oral or written
discourse in which the reasoning is flawed.
• Cogent is an argument that is very clear, logical and
convincing.
 Examples of fallacies
• Ad hominem: Attacks an individual not an argument.
Example: Don't believe what Kim says about global warming.
Kim dropped out of college!
• Post hoc: "Since event Y followed event X, event Y must have
been caused by event X." Example: “I studied hard and failed
the mathematics test, certainly, studying caused my failure”.
• Hasty generalisation: This is a conclusion based on
insufficient or biased evidence. Example: “Even though it's
only the first day, I can tell this is going to be a boring course”
• Red herring: Distracts by changing the subject. Example:
John: “Exercising is important for good health.” Isaac:
Certainly it can’t bring you happiness”. More two examples
on the next slides.
Practice on Logical Consistency
1. “Accidents happen on building sites when workers don’t
take sufficient care of health and safety. Many employees are
lax in following health and safety guidance. This means that
there will be a rise in accidents on building sites over the next
year.”
2. “Whenever a person eats broccoli often, he or she is able to
play the saxophone. George Bush was not able to play the
saxophone. So, George Bush must not have eaten broccoli
often.”
3. Identify the evidence in the text
• Identifying evidence in the text is usually fairly
straightforward.
• Look for statistics, examples, case histories, findings from
experiments, surveys, questionnaires or case studies.
• Facts (statements that have been proven) may include
citation and NOT opinion (personal beliefs/feelings not
proven).
• Look for triangulation: verification of facts from various
sources.
• The evidence may be anecdotal- that is, stories told by one
or few people about their experiences of the
phenomena(which can be verified).
4. Evaluate the Evidence
The following give some criteria against which you can
evaluate evidence in academic texts and for your own
research.
a. Check the date of research
Data may be out of date or conclusions based upon it
may have been revised.
b. Check the source of your information
• Articles in academic or professional journals and
in recommended textbooks are usually based on
in-depth research, and are regarded as more
reliable than findings recorded in magazines and
newspapers.
• Newspapers and magazines may be useful
primary sources for some subject such as cultural
studies, but are not generally regarded as
‘authorities’ to quote in essays
c. Check for bias in your sources
• When thinking critically we need to be continually
questioning in our minds whether there may be
hidden agendas (propaganda), or reasons why the
evidence appears to point in one way rather than
another. For example, women are usually told the
benefits of family planning methods but are rarely
told about the negative side effects.
• It is always worth considering what political or
academic interests might prevent the whole truth
from emerging.
d. Beware the allure of numbers and statistics
• It is important to check numerical data, and words that imply
numerical data, as these are often misused and amounts
misrepresented in order to sway the reader.
Most/many -Notice words such as ‘most’ and ‘many’.
Most/many is very vague amount.
Percentages-Notice when percentages are given. They can be
misleading.
Sample size-Small samples give very unreliable information. All
other things being equal, the bigger the sample, the more
reliable the data.
Representativeness- The samples should be representative of the
overall group being studied.
Conditions for data collection-It is important to find out, where
possible, about the conditions in which data were collected, or
determine how trustworthy they are.
Emotive language and persuader words- Certain words can be
very persuasive, and can trigger a position of trust in the reader.
Which words they are will vary from subject to subject. For example,
for some people the word ‘experiment’ summons up notions of
scientific accuracy and reliability. However, the fact that an
experimental approach was used does not in itself mean that the
evidence is sound.
• Emotive words- the use of words and phrases such as
‘cruel,’ ‘unfair’, ‘abuse’, ‘natural’, ‘normal’,
‘commonsense’, ‘innocent child,’ etc. can prompt
emotional responses that may lead the reader away
from an accurate appraisal of the evidence
presented. Emotive images, such as people crying,
can be used in a similar way.
• Persuader words- These words and phrases draw you
in by appealing to what they claim is evident. It may
be true that what follows is evident, but you still need
to be on the alert when you see such words. They
include ‘surely’, ‘clearly’, ‘obviously’, ‘it is evident
that,’ ‘it is plain to see that,’ ‘naturally’ and ‘of
course’, etc.
5. Evaluate the writer’s conclusion
• Do the propositions and evidence given support the writer's
conclusions?
• Does the line of reasoning lead you to make the same conclusions?
• Conclusions are usually at the end, but can be stated at the beginning,
or even in the middle, which makes them harder to spot. See for
example the examples in slide 8 and 10.
• Conclusions are usually indicated by ‘trigger’ words –‘therefore, so,
hence, thus, it is clear that…’ as explained above OR by imperatives –
words indicating that something has to be done – ‘must, should, need
to…’
6. Evaluate whether the evidence supports the
conclusions
• A writer may present evidence which could be
considered reliable, being based on good research,
but then draw conclusions which are not warranted
by the evidence. An exaggerated example illustrates
this:
• Proposition 1: The Karate champion is a woman
(verifiable fact)
• Proposition 2: My mother is a woman (verifiable fact)
• Conclusion: My mother is a woman, therefore, she is a
Karate champion (False conclusion)
Check for hidden false assumptions
• In the above example, the faulty reasoning was based
on the false assumption that if one is a woman is a
karate champion, then all women are karate
champions. This false assumption is easy to spot, but
it is not always so simple. Researchers may try to be
objective, but it is very difficult so stand completely
outside of the commonsense views and ideological
context of the society in which one is writing.