CHAPTER 3

DETERMINANTS
3.1 The Determinant of a Matrix
3.2 Determinant and Elementary Operations
3.3 Properties of Determinants
3.4 Application of Determinants

Elementary Linear Algebra 投影片設計編製者

R. Larson (7 Edition) 淡江大學 電機系 翁慶昌 教
 CH 3 Linear Algebra Applied

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2/64
 3.1 The Determinant of a Matrix

the determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix:
 a11 a12 
A  
a a
 21 22 

 det( A)  | A |  a11a22  a21a12


Note:

 a11 a12  a 11 a 12
a  
 21 a22  a 21 a 22

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.104 3/64

 
Ex. 1: (The determinant of a matrix of order 2)

2 3
 2( 2)  1( 3)  4  3  7
1 2
2 1
 2( 2)  4(1)  4  4  0
4 2

0 3
 0( 4)  2(3)  0  6  6
2 4


Note: The determinant of a matrix can be positive, zero, or negative.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.104 4/64

 
Minor of the entry aij :
The determinant of the matrix determined by deleting the ith row
and jth column of A
a11 a12  a1( j 1) a1( j 1)  a1n
  
a( i 1)1  a( i 1)( j 1) a( i 1)( j 1)  a( i 1) n
M ij 
a( i 1)1  a( i 1)( j 1) a( i 1)( j 1)  a( i 1) n
   
a n1  an ( j 1) an ( j 1)  ann


Cofactor of aij :
Cij  ( 1) i  j M ij
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.105 5/64
 
Ex:
 a11 a12 a13 
A  a21 a22 a23 
 
a31 a32 a33 
a12 a13 a11 a13
 M 21  M 22 
a32 a33 a31 a33

 C21  ( 1) 21 M 21   M 21 C22  ( 1) 2 2 M 22  M 22

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.105 6/64

  Notes: Sign pattern for cofactors
     
     
     
      
    
   
  
     
     
         
       
 
     

3 × 3 matrix 4 × 4 matrix n ×n matrix

 Notes:
Odd positions (where i+j is odd) have negative signs, and
even positions (where i+j is even) have positive signs.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.105 7/64

 
Ex 2: Find all the minors and cofactors of A.
0 2 1 
A  3  1 2
4 0 1 
Sol: (1) All the minors of A.
1 2 3 2 3 1
 M 11   1, M 12   5, M 13  4
0 1 4 1 4 0

2 1 0 1 0 2
M 21   2, M 22   4, M 23   8
0 1 4 1 4 1

2 1 0 1 0 2
M 31   5, M 32  3, M 33   6
1 2 3 2 3 1
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.105 8/64
 Sol: (2) All the cofactors of A.

 Cij  (1) i  j M ij
1 2 3 2 3 1
 C11    1, C12    5, C13   4
0 1 4 1 4 0

2 1 0 1 0 2
C21    2, C    4, C23   8
4 1
22
0 1 4 1
2 1 0 1 0 2
C31    5, C 32    3, C33    6
1 2 3 2 3 1

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.105 9/64

 
Thm 3.1: (Expansion by cofactors)
Let A is a square matrix of order n.

Then the determinant of A is given by

n
(a ) det( A) | A |  aij Cij  ai1Ci1  ai 2Ci 2    ainCin
j 1

(Cofactor expansion along the i-th row, i=1, 2,…, n )

or
n
(b) det( A) | A |  aij Cij  a1 j C1 j  a2 j C2 j    anj Cnj
i 1

(Cofactor expansion along the j-th row, j=1, 2,…, n )

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.107 10/64

 
Ex: The determinant of a matrix of order 3
 a11 a12 a13 
A  a21 a22 a23 
 
a31 a32 a33 

 det( A)  a11C11  a12C12  a13C13

 a21C21  a22C22  a23C23
 a31C31  a32C32  a33C33
 a11C11  a21C21  a31C31
 a12C12  a22C22  a32C32
 a13C13  a23C23  a33C33

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, Addition 11/64

 
Ex 3: The determinant of a matrix of order 3
0 2 1 
Ex 2

 C11  1, C12  5, C13  4

A  3  1 2 C21  2, C22  4, C23  8
4 0 1  C31  5, C 32  3, C33  6
Sol:
 det( A)  a11C11  a12C12  a13C13  (0)(1)  (2)(5)  (1)(4)  14
 a21C21  a22C22  a23C23  (3)(2)  (1)(4)  (2)(8)  14
 a31C31  a32C32  a33C33  (4)(5)  (0)(3)  (1)(6)  14
 a11C11  a21C21  a31C31  (0)(1)  (3)(2)  (4)(5)  14
 a12C12  a22C22  a32C32  (2)(5)  (1)(4)  (0)(3)  14
 a13C13  a23C23  a33C33  (1)(4)  (2)(8)  (1)(6)  14

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.106 12/64

 
Ex 5: (The determinant of a matrix of order 3)
0 2 1 
A  3  1 2  det( A)  ?
4  4 1 
Sol:
11  1 2 1 2 3 2
C11  (1) 7 C12  (1)  (1)(5)  5
4 1 4 1
1 3 3 1
C13  (1)  8
4 4
 det( A)  a11C11  a12C12  a13C13
 (0)(7)  (2)(5)  (1)(8)
2
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.108 13/64
  Notes:
The row (or column) containing the most zeros is the best choice
for expansion by cofactors .


Ex 4: (The determinant of a matrix of order 4)

 1 2 3 0
 1 1 0 2 
A  det( A)  ?
0 2 0 3
 
3 4 0  2

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.107 14/64

 Sol:
det( A)  (3)(C13 )  (0)(C23 )  (0)(C33 )  (0)(C43 )
 3C13
1 1 2
 3(1)13 0 2 3
3 4 2
 2 1 1 2 22  1 2 23  1 1 
 3(0)( 1)  (2)( 1)  (3)( 1) 
 4  2 3  2 3 4 
 30  (2)(1)( 4)  (3)( 1)( 7)
 (3)(13)
 39

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.107 15/64

 
The determinant of a matrix of order 3:
Subtract these three products.
 a11 a12 a13  a11 a12 a13 a11 a12
A  a 21 a 22 a 23 a21 a22 a23 a21 a22
 a 31 a 32 a 33 a31 a32 a33 a31 a32
Add these three products.

 det( A) | A | a11a22 a33  a12 a23a31  a13a21a32  a31a22 a13

 a32 a 23 a11  a33a21a12

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.108 16/64

 
Ex 5:

–4 0 6
0 2 1 0 2
A   3  1 2 3  1
 
4  4 1 4  4
0 16 –12

 det( A) | A | 0  16  12  (4)  0  6  2

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.108 17/64

 
Upper triangular matrix:
All the entries below the main diagonal are zeros.


Lower triangular matrix:

All the entries above the main diagonal are zeros.


Diagonal matrix:

All the entries above and below the main diagonal are zeros.

 Note:
A matrix that is both upper and lower triangular is called
diagonal.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.109 18/64

 
Ex:

a11 a12 a13   a11 0 0  a11 0 0 

 0 a22 a23  a21 a22 0   0 a22 0 
0 0 a  a a a  0 0 a 
 33   31 32 33   33 

upper triangular lower triangular diagonal

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.109 19/64

 
Thm 3.2: (Determinant of a Triangular Matrix)
If A is an n × n triangular matrix (upper triangular,
lower triangular, or diagonal), then its determinant is
the product of the entries on the main diagonal. That is

det( A) | A | a11a22 a33  ann

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.109 20/64

 
Ex 6: Find the determinants of the following triangular matrices.
 1 0 0 0 0
2 0 0 0  0 3 0 0 0
 4 2 0 0 
(a) A    (b) B   0 0 2 0 0
 5 6 1 0  
1  0 0 0 4 0
 5 3 3  0 0 0 0  2
Sol:

(a) |A| = (2)(–2)(1)(3) = –12

(b) |B| = (–1)(3)(2)(4)(–2) = 48

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.109 21/64

 Key Learning in Section 3.1
 Determine whether two matrices are equal.
 Add and subtract matrices and multiply a matrix by a scalar.
 Multiply two matrices.
 Use matrices to solve a system of linear equations.
 Partition a matrix and write a linear combination of column
vectors..

22/64
Keywords in Section 3.1
 determinant : 行列式
 minor : 子行列式
 cofactor : 餘因子
 expansion by cofactors : 餘因子展開
 upper triangular matrix: 上三角矩陣
 lower triangular matrix: 下三角矩陣
 diagonal matrix: 對角矩陣

23/64
 3.2 Evaluation of a determinant using elementary operations

Thm 3.3: (Elementary row operations and determinants)
Let A and B be square matrices.

( a ) B  rij ( A)  det( B )   det( A) (i.e. rij ( A)   A )

(b) B  ri( k ) ( A)  det( B )  k det( A) (i.e. ri( k ) ( A)  k A )

( c ) B  rij( k ) ( A)  det( B )  det( A) (i.e. rij( k ) ( A)  A )

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.2, p.113 24/64

 
Ex:
1 2 3
A  0 1 4 det( A)  2
 
1 2 1
4 8 12 0 1 4  1 2 3
A1  0 1 4  A2  1 2 3 A3   2  3  2
1 2 1  1 2 1   1 2 1 

A1  r1( 4 ) ( A)  det( A1)  det(r1( 4 ) ( A))  4 det( A)  (4)(2)  8

A2  r12 ( A)  det( A2)  det(r12 ( A))   det( A)  (2)  2

A3  r12( 2 ) ( A)  det( A3)  det(r12( 2 ) ( A))  det( A)  2

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.2, Addition 25/64

 
Notes:
det(rij ( A))   det( A)  det( A)   det(rij ( A))
1
det(ri ( A))  k det( A)  det( A)  det(ri( k ) ( A))
(k )

k
det( rij( k ) ( A))  det( A)  det( A)  det( rij( k ) ( A))

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.2, Addition 26/64

 Note:
A row-echelon form of a square matrix is always upper triangular.

Ex 2: (Evaluation a determinant using elementary row
operations)

2  3 10 
A  1 2  2  det( A)  ?
0 1  3

Sol:
2  3 10 1 2 2
r12
det( A)  1 2  2   2  3 10
0 1 3 0 1 3

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.2, p.113 27/64

 1 2 2 ( 1 ) 1 2 2
r12( 2 ) r2 7
1
  0 7 14  (1)( 1
) 0 1 2
0 1 3 7
0 1 3
( 1 )
3
1 2 2
r3
1
 (7)( 1 ) 0 1  2  (7)(3)(1)(1)(1)  21
3
0 0 1

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.2, p.113 28/64

 
Notes:
EA  E A

(1) E  Rij  E  Rij  1

 EA  rij  A   A  Rij A  E A

(2) E  Ri( k )  E  Ri( k )  k

 EA  ri( k )  A  k A  Ri( k ) A  E A

(3) E  Rij( k )  E  Rij  1

(k )

 EA  rij( k )  A  1 A  Rij( k ) A  E A

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.2, Addition 29/64

 
Determinants and elementary column operations


Thm: (Elementary column operations and determinants)
Let A and B be square matrices.

(a ) B  cij ( A)  det( B )   det( A) (i.e. cij ( A)   A )

(b) B  ci( k ) ( A)  det( B)  k det( A) (i.e. ci( k ) ( A)  k A )

(c) B  cij( k ) ( A)  det( B )  det( A) (i.e. cij( k ) ( A)  A )

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.2, p.114 30/64

 
Ex:
2 1  3
A  4 0 1  det( A)  8
0 0 2 

1 1  3 1 2  3 2 1 0
A1  2 0 1  A2  0 4 1  A3  4 0 1 
0 0 2  0 0 2  0 0 2
1
( ) 1 1
A1  c ( A)  det( A1)  det(c1 ( A))  det( A)  ( )(8)  4
1
2 (4)

2 2
A2  c12 ( A)  det( A2)  det(c12 ( A))   det( A)  (8)  8

A3  c23( 3 ) ( A)  det( A3)  det(c23( 3 ) ( A))  det( A)  8

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.2, p.114 31/64

 
Thm 3.4: (Conditions that yield a zero determinant)

If A is a square matrix and any of the following conditions is true,

then det (A) = 0.

(a) An entire row (or an entire column) consists of zeros.

(b) Two rows (or two columns) are equal.

(c) One row (or column) is a multiple of another row (or

column).

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.2, p.115 32/64

 
Ex:

1 2 3 1 4 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 2 5 0 0 2 2 2 0
4 5 6 3 6 0 4 5 6

1 4 2 1 2 3 1 8 4
1 5 2 0 4 5 6 0 2 10 5  0
1 6 2 2 4 6 3 12 6

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.2, Addition 33/64

 
Note:

Cofactor Expansion Row Reduction

Order n Additions Multiplications Additions Multiplications

3 5 9 5 10

5 119 205 30 45

10 3,628,799 6,235,300 285 339

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.2, p.116 34/64

 
Ex 5: (Evaluating a determinant)
 3 5 2
A   2  4  1
 
  3 0 6 
Sol: 3 5 2 3 5 4 (2)
C13
det( A)  2  4  1  2  4 3
3 0 6 3 0 0
5 431
 (3)(1)  (3)(1)  3
4 3
3 5 2 ( 54 )  3 5 2
r12

det( A)  2  4  1  52 0 53
3 0 6 3 0 6
2
33

 (5)(1)  (5)( )  3
1 2 5 5

3 6 5
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.2, p.116 35/64
 
Ex 6: (Evaluating a determinant)
 2 0 1 3  2
 2 1 3 2  1
A   1 0 1 2 3
 3 1 2 4  3
 1 1 3 2 0
Sol:

2 0 1 3 2 2 0 1 3 2
2 1 3 2 1 2 1 3 2 1
det( A)  1 0  1 2 3 (1) 1 0 1 2 3
3 1 2 4  3 rr24( 1) 1 0 5 6 4
1 1 3 2 0 25 3 0 0 0 1
2 1 3 2
 (1)(1) 2 2 1 1 2 3
1 5 6 4
3 0 0 1
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.2, p.117 36/64
 8 1 3 2
8 1 3 0 0 5
( 3 )
C41
 8 1 2 3
  (1)(1) 44  8  1 2 (1)  8  1 2
13 5 6 4 r21

13 5 6 13 5 6
0 0 0 1

1 3  8 1
 5( 1)
13 5
 (5)( 27)
 135

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.2, p.117 37/64

 Key Learning in Section 3.2
 Determine whether two matrices are equal.
 Add and subtract matrices and multiply a matrix by a scalar.
 Multiply two matrices.
 Use matrices to solve a system of linear equations.
 Partition a matrix and write a linear combination of column
vectors.

38/64
Keywords in Section 3.2
 determinant : 行列式
 elementary row operation: 基本列運算
 row equivalent: 列等價
 elementary matrix: 基本矩陣
 elementary column operation: 基本行運算
 column equivalent: 行等價

39/64
 3.3 Properties of Determinants
 Thm 3.5: (Determinant of a matrix product)

det (AB) = det (A) det (B)


Notes:

(1) det (EA) = det (E) det (A)

(2) det( A  B )  det( A)  det( B )

(3)
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13
a22  b22 a22  b22 a23  b23  a21 a22 a23  b21 b22 b23
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.3, p.120 40/64

 
Ex 1: (The determinant of a matrix product)

1  2 2 2 0 1 
A  0 3 2 B  0  1  2
1 0 1  3 1  2

Find |A|, |B|, and |AB|

Sol:

1 2 2 2 0 1
| A | 0 3 2  7 | B | 0  1  2  11
1 0 1 3 1 2

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.3, p.120 41/64

 1  2 2   2 0 1  8 4 1 
AB  0 3 2 0  1  2  6  1  10
1 0 1  3 1  2 5 1  1 

8 4 1
| AB | 6  1  10  77
5 1 1

 Check:
|AB| = |A| |B|

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.3, p.120 42/64

 
Thm 3.6: (Determinant of a scalar multiple of a matrix)
If A is an n × n matrix and c is a scalar, then
det (cA) = cn det (A)

Ex 2:
 10  20 40 1 2 4
A   30 0 50, 3 0 5 5
 
 20  30 10  2 3 1
Find |
Sol: A|.
 1 2 4 1 2 4
A  10  3    0 5  (1000)(5)  5000
3
0 5 A 10 3
 
  2  3 1 2 3 1
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.3, p.121 43/64
  Thm 3.7: (Determinant of an invertible matrix)
A square matrix A is invertible (nonsingular) if and only if
det (A)  0
 Ex 3: (Classifying square matrices as singular or nonsingular)
0 2  1 0 2  1
A  3  2 1  B  3  2 1 
3 2  1 3 2 1 
Sol:
A 0  A has no inverse (it is singular).

B  12  0  B has an inverse (it is nonsingular).

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.3, p.122 44/64

  Thm 3.8: (Determinant of an inverse matrix)
1
If A is invertible,then det(A 1 )  .
det(A)
 Thm 3.9: (Determinant of a transpose)

If A is a square matrix, then det( AT )  det( A).


Ex 4:
1 0 3  1
(a) A  ? (b) AT  ?
A  0  1 2
2 1 0
Sol:
1 0 3 1 1
 A1  
 | A | 0  1 2  4 A 4
2 1 0 AT  A  4
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.3, pp.122-124 45/64
  Equivalent conditions for a nonsingular matrix:

If A is an n × n matrix, then the following statements are equivalent.

(1) A is invertible.

(2) Ax = b has a unique solution for every n × 1 matrix b.

(3) Ax = 0 has only the trivial solution.

(4) A is row-equivalent to In

(5) A can be written as the product of elementary matrices.

(6) det (A)  0

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.3, p.123 46/64

 
Ex 5: Which of the following system has a unique solution?

(a) 2 x2  x3  1
3 x1  2 x2  x3  4
3 x1  2 x2  x3  4
(b) 2 x2  x3  1
3 x1  2 x2  x3  4
3 x1  2 x2  x3  4

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.3, p.123 47/64

 Sol:
(a) Ax  b
 A 0
 This system does not have a unique solution.
(b) Bx  b
 B  12  0
 This system has a unique solution.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.3, p.123 48/64

 Key Learning in Section 3.3
 Determine whether two matrices are equal.
 Add and subtract matrices and multiply a matrix by a scalar.
 Multiply two matrices.
 Use matrices to solve a system of linear equations.
 Partition a matrix and write a linear combination of column
vectors.

49/64
Keywords in Section 3.3
 determinant: 行列式
 matrix multiplication: 矩陣相乘
 scalar multiplication: 純量積
 invertible matrix: 可逆矩陣
 inverse matrix: 反矩陣
 nonsingular matrix: 非奇異矩陣
 transpose matrix: 轉置矩陣

50/64
 3.4 Applications of Determinants

Matrix of cofactors of A:
C11 C12  C1n 
C C  C 
Cij    21 22 2n 
Cij  (1) i  j Mij
   
 
Cn1 Cn 2  Cnn 


Adjoint matrix of A:
C11 C21  Cn1 
C C22  Cn 2 
adj ( A)  Cij    12
T

   
 
C1n C2 n  Cnn 

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.4, p.128 51/64

 
Thm 3.10: (The inverse of a matrix given by its adjoint)
If A is an n × n invertible matrix, then
1 1
A  adj ( A)
det( A)

Ex:
a b 
A 
 c d 
1 1
 det( A)  ad  bc A  adj ( A)
det  A
 d  b 1  d  b
adj ( A)    
  c a  ad  bc   c a 

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.4, p.129 52/64

 
Ex 1 & Ex 2:
 1 3 2 (a) Find the adjoint of A.
A   0  2 1 
 1 0  2 (b) Use the adjoint of A to A1
find
i j
Sol:  C ij  ( 1) M ij
2 1 0 1 0 2
 C11    4, C12    1, C13   2
0 2 1 2 1 0
3 2 1 2 1 3
C21    6, C22    0, C23   3
0 2 1 2 1 0

3 2 1 2 1 3
C31    7, C 32    1, C33   2
2 1 0 1 0 2

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.4, pp.128-129 53/64

  cofactor matrix of A  adjoint matrix of A
 4 1 2 4 6 7
 
Cij  6 0 3 adj ( A)  Cij 
T
 1 0 1 
 
7 1 2 2 3 2

 inverse matrix of A
1
A1  adj ( A)  det  A  3
det  A
4 6 7  43 2 7
3 
 13 1 0 1   13 0 1
   3

2 3 2  23 1 3
2



Check: AA1  I
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.4, pp.128-129 54/64
 
Thm 3.11: (Cramer’s Rule)
a11 x1  a12 x2    a1n xn  b1
a21 x1  a22 x2    a2 n xn  b2

an1 x1  an 2 x2    ann xn  bn
 x1   b1 
x  b 
A  aij nn  A(1) , A( 2 ) ,, A( n )  x   2 b   
2
Ax  b
   
x  b 
a11 a12  a1n  n  n
a21 a22  a2 n
det( A)  0
   (this system has a unique
an1 an 2  ann solution)

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.4, p.131 55/64

 
A j  A(1) , A( 2 ) ,  , A( j 1) , b, A( j 1) ,  , A( n ) 
 a11  a1( j 1) b1 a1( j 1)  a1n 
a  a2 ( j 1) b2 a2 ( j 1)  a2 n 
 
21

   
a an ( j 1)  ann 
 n1  an ( j 1) bn

( i.e. det( A j )  b1C 1 j  b2 C 2 j    bn C nj )

det( A j )
 xj  , j  1, 2 ,  , n
det( A)

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.4, p.131 56/64

 
Pf:
A x = b, det( A)  0
1 1
x A b  adj ( A)b
det( A)
C11 C21  Cn1   b1 
  
1 C12 C22  Cn 2  b2 

det( A)       
  
C1n C2 n  Cnn  bn 
b1C11  b2C21    bnCn1 
b C  b2C22    bnCn 2 
1  1 12 

det( A)    
b C  b2C2 n    bnCnn 
 1 1n
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.4, p.131 57/64
 1
 xj  (b1C1 j  b2C2 j    bnCnj )
det( A)
det( A j )
 j  1 ,2 ,  , n
det( A)

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.4, p.131 58/64

 
Ex 4: Use Cramer’s rule to solve the system of linear equations.
 x  2 y  3z  1
2x  z  0
3x  4 y  4 z  2
Sol: 1 2  3 1 2 3
det( A)  2 0 1  10 det( A1 )  0 0 1 8
3 4 4 2 4 4
1 1  3 1 2 1
det( A2 )  2 0 1  15, det( A3 )  2 0 0  16
3 2 4 3 4 2
det( A1 ) 4 det( A2 )  3 det( A3 )  8
x  y  z 
det( A) 5 det( A) 2 det( A) 5
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.4, p.131 59/64
Keywords in Section 3.4

matrix of cofactors : 餘因子矩陣

adjoint matrix : 伴隨矩陣

Cramer’s rule : Cramer 法則

60/64
 3.1 Linear Algebra Applied

Volume of a Solid

If x, y and z are continuous functions of u, v, and w

with continuous first partial derivatives, then the
Jacobians J(u, v) and J(u, v, w) are defined as the
determinants
x x x
x x u v w
u v y y y
J (u , v)  and J (u, v, w)  .
y y u v w
u v z z z
u v w

And one practical use of Jacobians is in finding the

volume of a solid region. In Section 3.4, you will
study a formula, which also uses determinants, for
finding the volume of a tetrahedron. In the Chapter 3
Review, you are asked to find the Jacobian of a given
set of functions. (See Review Exercises 49–52.)
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.108 61/64
 3.2 Linear Algebra Applied

Sudoku

In the number-placement puzzle Sudoku, the object is

to fill out a partially completed 99 grid of boxes with
numbers from 1 to 9 so that each column, row, and
33 sub-grid contains each of these numbers without
repetition. For a completed Sudoku grid to be valid,
no two rows (or columns) will have the numbers in
the same order. If this should happen in a row or
column, then the determinant of the matrix formed by
the numbers in the grid will be zero. This is a direct
result of condition 2 of Theorem 3.4.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.2, p.114 62/64

 3.3 Linear Algebra Applied

Engineering and Control

Systems of linear differential equations often arise in

engineering and control theory. For a function f(t) that
is defined for all positive values of t the Laplace
transform of f(t) is given by

F ( s )   e  st f (t )dt.
0

Laplace transforms and Cramer’s Rule, which uses

determinants to solve a system of linear equations,
can often be used to solve a system of differential
equations. You will study Cramer’s Rule in the next
section.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.3, p.124 63/64

 3.4 Linear Algebra Applied

Planetary Orbits

According to Kepler’s First Law of Planetary Motion,

the orbits of the planets are ellipses, with the sun at
one focus of the ellipse. The general equation of a
conic section (such as an ellipse) is
ax2 + bxy + cy2 + dx + ey+ f = 0.
To determine the equation of the orbit of a planet, an
astronomer can find the coordinates of the planet
along its orbit at five different points (xi, yi) where i =
1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, and then use the determinant
x 2 xy y2 x y 1
x12 x1 y1 y12 x1 y1 1
x22 x2 y2 y22 x2 y2 1
x32 x3 y3 y32 x3 y3 1
x42 x4 y4 y42 x4 y4 1
x52 x5 y5 y52 x5 y5 1
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.4, p.135 64/64