Chapter 3

Determinants

3.1 The Determinant of a Matrix

3.2 Evaluation of a Determinant using
Elementary Operations
3.3 Properties of Determinants
3.4 Introduction to Eigenvalues
3.5 Application of Determinants
Elementary Linear Algebra 投影片設計編製者
R. Larsen et al. (6 Edition) 淡江大學 電機系 翁慶昌 教
 3.1 The Determinant of a Matrix

the determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix:
 a11 a12 
A  
a a
 21 22 

 det( A)  | A |  a11a22  a21a12


Note:

 a11 a12  a 11 a 12
a  
 21 a22  a 21 a 22

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.123 2/62

 
Ex. 1: (The determinant of a matrix of order 2)

2 3
 2( 2)  1( 3)  4  3  7
1 2
2 1
 2( 2)  4(1)  4  4  0
4 2

0 3
 0( 4)  2(3)  0  6  6
2 4


Note: The determinant of a matrix can be positive, zero, or negative.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.123 3/62

 
Minor of the entry aij :
The determinant of the matrix determined by deleting the ith row
and jth column of A
a11 a12  a1( j 1) a1( j 1)  a1n
  
a( i 1)1  a( i 1)( j 1) a( i 1)( j 1)  a( i 1) n
M ij 
a( i 1)1  a( i 1)( j 1) a( i 1)( j 1)  a( i 1) n
   
a n1  an ( j 1) an ( j 1)  ann


Cofactor of aij :
Cij  ( 1) i  j M ij
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.124 4/62
 
Ex:
 a11 a12 a13 
A  a21 a22 a23 
 
a31 a32 a33 
a12 a13 a11 a13
 M 21  M 22 
a32 a33 a31 a33

 C21  ( 1) 21 M 21   M 21 C22  ( 1) 2 2 M 22  M 22

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.124 5/62

  Notes: Sign pattern for cofactors
     
     
     
      
    
   
  
     
     
         
       
 
     

3 × 3 matrix 4 × 4 matrix n ×n matrix

 Notes:
Odd positions (where i+j is odd) have negative signs, and
even positions (where i+j is even) have positive signs.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.124 6/62

 
Ex 2: Find all the minors and cofactors of A.
0 2 1 
A  3  1 2
4 0 1 
Sol: (1) All the minors of A.
1 2 3 2 3 1
 M 11   1, M 12   5, M 13  4
0 1 4 1 4 0

2 1 0 1 0 2
M 21   2, M 22   4, M 23   8
0 1 4 1 4 1

2 1 0 1 0 2
M 31   5, M 32  3, M 33   6
1 2 3 2 3 1
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.125 7/62
 Sol: (2) All the cofactors of A.

 Cij  (1) i  j M ij
1 2 3 2 3 1
 C11    1, C12    5, C13   4
0 1 4 1 4 0

2 1 0 1 0 2
C21    2, C    4, C23   8
4 1
22
0 1 4 1
2 1 0 1 0 2
C31    5, C 32    3, C33    6
1 2 3 2 3 1

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.125 8/62

 
Thm 3.1: (Expansion by cofactors)
Let A is a square matrix of order n.

Then the determinant of A is given by

n
(a ) det( A) | A |  aij Cij  ai1Ci1  ai 2Ci 2    ainCin
j 1

(Cofactor expansion along the i-th row, i=1, 2,…, n )

or
n
(b) det( A) | A |  aij Cij  a1 j C1 j  a2 j C2 j    anj Cnj
i 1

(Cofactor expansion along the j-th row, j=1, 2,…, n )

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.126 9/62

 
Ex: The determinant of a matrix of order 3
 a11 a12 a13 
A  a21 a22 a23 
 
a31 a32 a33 

 det( A)  a11C11  a12C12  a13C13

 a21C21  a22C22  a23C23
 a31C31  a32C32  a33C33
 a11C11  a21C21  a31C31
 a12C12  a22C22  a32C32
 a13C13  a23C23  a33C33

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, Addition 10/62

 
Ex 3: The determinant of a matrix of order 3
0 2 1 
Ex 2

 C11  1, C12  5, C13  4

A  3  1 2 C21  2, C22  4, C23  8
4 0 1  C31  5, C 32  3, C33  6
Sol:
 det( A)  a11C11  a12C12  a13C13  (0)(1)  (2)(5)  (1)(4)  14
 a21C21  a22C22  a23C23  (3)(2)  (1)(4)  (2)(8)  14
 a31C31  a32C32  a33C33  (4)(5)  (0)(3)  (1)(6)  14
 a11C11  a21C21  a31C31  (0)(1)  (3)(2)  (4)(5)  14
 a12C12  a22C22  a32C32  (2)(5)  (1)(4)  (0)(3)  14
 a13C13  a23C23  a33C33  (1)(4)  (2)(8)  (1)(6)  14

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.126 11/62

 
Ex 5: (The determinant of a matrix of order 3)
0 2 1 
A  3  1 2  det( A)  ?
4  4 1 
Sol:
11  1 2 1 2 3 2
C11  (1)  1 C12  (1)  (1)(5)  5
0 1 4 1
1 3 3 1
C13  (1) 4
4 0
 det( A)  a11C11  a12C12  a13C13
 (0)(1)  (2)(5)  (1)(4)
 14
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.128 12/62
  Notes:
The row (or column) containing the most zeros is the best choice
for expansion by cofactors .


Ex 4: (The determinant of a matrix of order 4)

 1 2 3 0
 1 1 0 2 
A  det( A)  ?
0 2 0 3
 
3 4 0  2

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.127 13/62

 Sol:
det( A)  (3)(C13 )  (0)(C23 )  (0)(C33 )  (0)(C43 )
 3C13
1 1 2
 3(1)13 0 2 3
3 4 2
 2 1 1 2 22  1 2 23  1 1 
 3(0)( 1)  (2)( 1)  (3)( 1) 
 4  2 3  2 3 4 
 30  (2)(1)( 4)  (3)( 1)( 7)
 (3)(13)
 39

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.127 14/62

 
The determinant of a matrix of order 3:
Subtract these three products.
 a11 a12 a13  a11 a12 a13 a11 a12
A  a 21 a 22 a 23 a21 a22 a23 a21 a22
 a 31 a 32 a 33 a31 a32 a33 a31 a32
Add these three products.

 det( A) | A | a11a22 a33  a12 a23a31  a13a21a32  a31a22 a13

 a32 a 23 a11  a33a21a12

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.127 15/62

 
Ex 5:

–4 0 6
0 2 1 0 2
A   3  1 2 3  1
 
4  4 1 4  4
0 16 –12

 det( A) | A | 0  16  12  (4)  0  6  2

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.128 16/62

 
Upper triangular matrix:
All the entries below the main diagonal are zeros.


Lower triangular matrix:

All the entries above the main diagonal are zeros.


Diagonal matrix:

All the entries above and below the main diagonal are zeros.

 Note:
A matrix that is both upper and lower triangular is called diagonal.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.128 17/62

 
Ex:

a11 a12 a13   a11 0 0  a11 0 0 

 0 a22 a23  a21 a22 0   0 a22 0 
0 0 a  a a a  0 0 a 
 33   31 32 33   33 

upper triangular lower triangular diagonal

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.128 18/62

 
Thm 3.2: (Determinant of a Triangular Matrix)
If A is an n × n triangular matrix (upper triangular,
lower triangular, or diagonal), then its determinant is
the product of the entries on the main diagonal. That is

det( A) | A | a11a22 a33  ann

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.129 19/62

 
Ex 6: Find the determinants of the following triangular matrices.
 1 0 0 0 0
2 0 0 0  0 3 0 0 0
 4 2 0 0 
(a) A    (b) B   0 0 2 0 0
 5 6 1 0  
1  0 0 0 4 0
 5 3 3  0 0 0 0  2
Sol:

(a) |A| = (2)(–2)(1)(3) = –12

(b) |B| = (–1)(3)(2)(4)(–2) = 48

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.1, p.129 20/62

Keywords in Section 3.1:
 determinant : 行列式
 minor : 子行列式
 cofactor : 餘因子
 expansion by cofactors : 餘因子展開
 upper triangular matrix: 上三角矩陣
 lower triangular matrix: 下三角矩陣
 diagonal matrix: 對角矩陣

21/62
 3.2 Evaluation of a determinant using elementary operations

Thm 3.3: (Elementary row operations and determinants)
Let A and B be square matrices.

( a ) B  rij ( A)  det( B )   det( A) (i.e. rij ( A)   A )

(b) B  ri( k ) ( A)  det( B )  k det( A) (i.e. ri( k ) ( A)  k A )

( c ) B  rij( k ) ( A)  det( B )  det( A) (i.e. rij( k ) ( A)  A )

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.2, p.134 22/62

 
Ex:
1 2 3
A  0 1 4 det( A)  2
 
1 2 1
4 8 12 0 1 4  1 2 3
A1  0 1 4  A2  1 2 3 A3   2  3  2
1 2 1  1 2 1   1 2 1 

A1  r1( 4 ) ( A)  det( A1)  det(r1( 4 ) ( A))  4 det( A)  (4)(2)  8

A2  r12 ( A)  det( A2)  det(r12 ( A))   det( A)  (2)  2

A3  r12( 2 ) ( A)  det( A3)  det(r12( 2 ) ( A))  det( A)  2

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.2, Addition 23/62

 
Notes:
det(rij ( A))   det( A)  det( A)   det(rij ( A))
1
det(ri ( A))  k det( A)  det( A)  det(ri( k ) ( A))
(k )

k
det( rij( k ) ( A))  det( A)  det( A)  det( rij( k ) ( A))

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.2, pp.134-135 24/62

 Note:
A row-echelon form of a square matrix is always upper triangular.

Ex 2: (Evaluation a determinant using elementary row operation
s)

2  3 10 
A  1 2  2  det( A)  ?
0 1  3

Sol:
2  3 10 1 2 2
r12
det( A)  1 2  2   2  3 10
0 1 3 0 1 3

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.2, pp.134-135 25/62

 1 2 2 ( 1 ) 1 2 2
r12( 2 ) r2 7
1
  0 7 14  (1)( 1
) 0 1 2
0 1 3 7
0 1 3
1 2 2
( 1 )
r23
 7 0 1  2  (7)(1)(1)(1)  7
0 0 1

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.2, pp.134-135 26/62

 
Notes:
EA  E A

(1) E  Rij  E  Rij  1

 EA  rij  A   A  Rij A  E A

(2) E  Ri( k )  E  Ri( k )  k

 EA  ri( k )  A  k A  Ri( k ) A  E A

(3) E  Rij( k )  E  Rij  1

(k )

 EA  rij( k )  A  1 A  Rij( k ) A  E A

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.2, Addition 27/62

 
Determinants and elementary column operations


Thm: (Elementary column operations and determinants)
Let A and B be square matrices.

(a ) B  cij ( A)  det( B )   det( A) (i.e. cij ( A)   A )

(b) B  ci( k ) ( A)  det( B)  k det( A) (i.e. ci( k ) ( A)  k A )

(c) B  cij( k ) ( A)  det( B )  det( A) (i.e. cij( k ) ( A)  A )

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.2, p.135 28/62

 
Ex:
2 1  3
A  4 0 1  det( A)  8
0 0 2 

1 1  3 1 2  3 2 1 0
A1  2 0 1  A2  0 4 1  A3  4 0 1 
0 0 2  0 0 2  0 0 2
1
( ) 1 1
A1  c ( A)  det( A1)  det(c1 ( A))  det( A)  ( )(8)  4
1
2 (4)

2 2
A2  c12 ( A)  det( A2)  det(c12 ( A))   det( A)  (8)  8

A3  c23( 3 ) ( A)  det( A3)  det(c23( 3 ) ( A))  det( A)  8

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.2, p.135 29/62

 
Thm 3.4: (Conditions that yield a zero determinant)

If A is a square matrix and any of the following conditions is true, t

hen det (A) = 0.

(a) An entire row (or an entire column) consists of zeros.

(b) Two rows (or two columns) are equal.

(c) One row (or column) is a multiple of another row (or

column).

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.2, p.136 30/62

 
Ex:

1 2 3 1 4 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 2 5 0 0 2 2 2 0
4 5 6 3 6 0 4 5 6

1 4 2 1 2 3 1 8 4
1 5 2 0 4 5 6 0 2 10 5  0
1 6 2 2 4 6 3 12 6

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.2, Addition 31/62

 
Note:

Cofactor Expansion Row Reduction

Order n Additions Multiplications Additions Multiplications

3 5 9 5 10

5 119 205 30 45

10 3,628,799 6,235,300 285 339

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.2, p.138 32/62

 
Ex 5: (Evaluating a determinant)
 3 5 2
A   2  4  1
 
  3 0 6 
Sol: 3 5 2 3 5 4 (2)
C13
det( A)  2  4  1  2  4 3
3 0 6 3 0 0
5 431
 (3)(1)  (3)(1)  3
4 3
3 5 2 ( 54 )  3 5 2
r12

det( A)  2  4  1  52 0 53
3 0 6 3 0 6
2
33

 (5)(1)  (5)( )  3
1 2 5 5

3 6 5
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.2, p.138 33/62
 
Ex 6: (Evaluating a determinant)
 2 0 1 3  2
 2 1 3 2  1
A   1 0 1 2 3
 3 1 2 4  3
 1 1 3 2 0
Sol:

2 0 1 3 2 2 0 1 3 2
2 1 3 2 1 2 1 3 2 1
det( A)  1 0  1 2 3 (1) 1 0 1 2 3
3 1 2 4  3 rr24( 1) 1 0 5 6 4
1 1 3 2 0 25 3 0 0 0 1
2 1 3 2
 (1)(1) 2 2 1 1 2 3
1 5 6 4
3 0 0 1
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.2, p.139 34/62
 8 1 3 2
8 1 3 0 0 5
( 3 )
C41
 8 1 2 3
  (1)(1) 44  8  1 2 (1)  8  1 2
13 5 6 4 r21

13 5 6 13 5 6
0 0 0 1

1 3  8 1
 5( 1)
13 5
 (5)( 27)
 135

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.2, p.140 35/62

 3.3 Properties of Determinants
 Thm 3.5: (Determinant of a matrix product)

det (AB) = det (A) det (B)


Notes:

(1) det (EA) = det (E) det (A)

(2) det( A  B )  det( A)  det( B )

(3)
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13
a22  b22 a22  b22 a23  b23  a21 a22 a23  b21 b22 b23
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.3, p.143 36/62

 
Ex 1: (The determinant of a matrix product)

1  2 2 2 0 1 
A  0 3 2 B  0  1  2
1 0 1  3 1  2

Find |A|, |B|, and |AB|

Sol:

1 2 2 2 0 1
| A | 0 3 2  7 | B | 0  1  2  11
1 0 1 3 1 2

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.3, p.143 37/62

 1  2 2   2 0 1  8 4 1 
AB  0 3 2 0  1  2  6  1  10
1 0 1  3 1  2 5 1  1 

8 4 1
| AB | 6  1  10  77
5 1 1

 Check:
|AB| = |A| |B|

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.3, p.143 38/62

 
Thm 3.6: (Determinant of a scalar multiple of a matrix)
If A is an n × n matrix and c is a scalar, then
det (cA) = cn det (A)

Ex 2:
 10  20 40 1 2 4
A   30 0 50, 3 0 5 5
 
 20  30 10  2 3 1
Find |A|.
Sol:
 1  2 4 1 2 4

A  10 3 0 5   A  10 3
3 0 5  (1000)(5)  5000
 
  2  3 1 2 3 1
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.3, p.144 39/62
  Thm 3.7: (Determinant of an invertible matrix)
A square matrix A is invertible (nonsingular) if and only if
det (A)  0
 Ex 3: (Classifying square matrices as singular or nonsingular)
0 2  1 0 2  1
A  3  2 1  B  3  2 1 
3 2  1 3 2 1 
Sol:
A 0  A has no inverse (it is singular).

B  12  0  B has an inverse (it is nonsingular).

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.3, p.145 40/62

  Thm 3.8: (Determinant of an inverse matrix)
1
If A is invertible,then det(A 1 )  .
det(A)
 Thm 3.9: (Determinant of a transpose)

If A is a square matrix, then det( AT )  det( A).


Ex 4:
1 0 3  1
(a) A  ? (b) AT  ?
A  0  1 2
2 1 0
Sol:
1 0 3 1 1
 A1  
 | A | 0  1 2  4 A 4
2 1 0 AT  A  4
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.3, pp.146-148 41/62
  Equivalent conditions for a nonsingular matrix:

If A is an n × n matrix, then the following statements are equivalent.

(1) A is invertible.

(2) Ax = b has a unique solution for every n × 1 matrix b.

(3) Ax = 0 has only the trivial solution.

(4) A is row-equivalent to In

(5) A can be written as the product of elementary matrices.

(6) det (A)  0

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.3, p.147 42/62

 
Ex 5: Which of the following system has a unique solution?

(a) 2 x2  x3  1
3 x1  2 x2  x3  4
3 x1  2 x2  x3  4
(b) 2 x2  x3  1
3 x1  2 x2  x3  4
3 x1  2 x2  x3  4

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.3, p.148 43/62

 Sol:
(a) Ax  b
 A 0
 This system does not have a unique solution.
(b) Bx  b
 B  12  0
 This system has a unique solution.

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.3, p.148 44/62

 3.4 Introduction to Eigenvalues

Eigenvalue problem:

If A is an nn matrix, do there exist n1 nonzero matrices x

such that Ax is a scalar multiple of x ？

Eigenvalue and eigenvector:
A ： an nn matrix
 ： a scalar
x ： a n1 nonzero column matrix

Eigenvalue
(The fundamental equation for
Ax  x
the eigenvalue problem)
Eigenvector
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.4, p.152 45/62
 
Ex 1: (Verifying eigenvalues and eigenvectors)
1 4  1 2
A  x1    x2   
 2 3 1  1
Eigenvalue
1 4 1 5 1
Ax1          5   5 x1
2 3 1 5 1
Eigenvector
Eigenvalue
1 4   2    2  2
Ax2          1   (1) x2
2 3  1  1   1
Eigenvector
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.4, p.152 46/62
 
Question:
Given an nn matrix A, how can you find the eigenvalues and
corresponding eigenvectors?

Note:
Ax  x  (I  A) x  0 (homogeneous system)
If (I  A) x  0 has nonzero solutions iff det(I  A)  0.

 Characteristic equation of AMnn:

det(I  A)  (I  A)  n  cn 1n 1    c1  c0  0

Elementary Linear Algebra: section 3.4, p.153 47/62

 
Ex 2: (Finding eigenvalues and eigenvectors)
1 4 
A 
 2 3 

Sol: Characteristic equation:

 1  4
I  A 
2  3
 2  4  5  (  5)(  1)  0

   5,  1

Eigenvalues: 1  5, 2  1

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.4, p.153 48/62

  4  4  x1  0
(1)1  5  (1I  A) x       
  2 2   x2   0 
 x1  t  1
 x   t   t 1, t  0
 2    

 2  4  x1  0
(2)2  1  (2 I  A) x       
  2  4   x2   0 
 x1   2t   2 
 x    t   t  1, t  0
 2    

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.4, p.153 49/62

 
Ex 3: (Finding eigenvalues and eigenvectors)

 1 2  2
A 1 2 1
 
 1  1 0 

Sol: Characteristic equation:

 1 2 2
I  A   1   2  1  (  1)(  1)(  3)  0
1 1 
The eigenvalues : 1  1, 2  1, 3  3

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.4, p.154 50/62

 1  1  0  2 2  1 0 2 
 1I  A   1  1  1 ~ 0 1  1
   
 1 1 1  0 0 0 
 x1   2t    2
 x    t   eigenvectors : t  1 , t  0
 2    
 x3   t   1 

2  1   2  2 2  1 0  2 
 2 I  A    1  3  1 ~ 0 1 1 
   
 1 1  1 0 0 0 
 x1   2t  2
 x    t   eigenvectors : t  1, t  0
 2    
 x3   t   1 
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.4, p.155 51/62
  2  2 2  1 0 2 
3  3
 3 I  A   1 1  1 ~ 0 1 1 
   
 1 1 3  0 0 0
 x1   2t    2
 x     t   eigenvectors : t   1 , t  0
 2  
 x3   t   1 

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.4, p.156 52/62

 3.5 Applications of Determinants

Matrix of cofactors of A:
C11 C12  C1n 
C C  C 
Cij    21 22 2n 
Cij  (1) i  j Mij
   
 
Cn1 Cn 2  Cnn 


Adjoint matrix of A:
C11 C21  Cn1 
C C22  Cn 2 
adj ( A)  Cij    12
T

   
 
C1n C2 n  Cnn 

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.5, p.158 53/62

 
Thm 3.10: (The inverse of a matrix given by its adjoint)
If A is an n × n invertible matrix, then
1 1
A  adj ( A)
det( A)

Ex:
a b 
A 
 c d 
1 1
 det( A)  ad  bc A  adj ( A)
det  A
 d  b 1  d  b
adj ( A)    
  c a  ad  bc   c a 

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.5, p.159 54/62

 
Ex 1 & Ex 2:
 1 3 2 (a) Find the adjoint of A.
A   0  2 1 
 1 0  2 (b) Use the adjoint of A to fin A1
d
i j
Sol:  C ij  ( 1) M ij
2 1 0 1 0 2
 C11    4, C12    1, C13   2
0 2 1 2 1 0
3 2 1 2 1 3
C21    6, C22    0, C23   3
0 2 1 2 1 0

3 2 1 2 1 3
C31    7, C 32    1, C33   2
2 1 0 1 0 2

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.5, p.160 55/62

  cofactor matrix of A  adjoint matrix of A
 4 1 2 4 6 7
 
Cij  6 0 3 adj ( A)  Cij 
T
 1 0 1 
 
7 1 2 2 3 2

 inverse matrix of A
1
A1  adj ( A)  det  A  3
det  A
4 6 7  43 2 7
3 
 13 1 0 1   13 0 1
   3

2 3 2  23 1 3
2



Check: AA1  I
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.5, p.160 56/62
 
Thm 3.11: (Cramer’s Rule)
a11 x1  a12 x2    a1n xn  b1
a21 x1  a22 x2    a2 n xn  b2

an1 x1  an 2 x2    ann xn  bn
 x1   b1 
x  b 
A  aij nn  A(1) , A( 2 ) ,, A( n )  x   2 b   
2
Ax  b
   
x  b 
a11 a12  a1n  n  n
a21 a22  a2 n
det( A)  0
   (this system has a unique
an1 an 2  ann solution)

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.5, p.163 57/62

 
A j  A(1) , A( 2 ) ,  , A( j 1) , b, A( j 1) ,  , A( n ) 
 a11  a1( j 1) b1 a1( j 1)  a1n 
a  a2 ( j 1) b2 a2 ( j 1)  a2 n 
 
21

   
a an ( j 1)  ann 
 n1  an ( j 1) bn

( i.e. det( A j )  b1C1 j  b2C2 j    bnCnj )

det( A j )
 xj  , j  1, 2 ,  , n
det( A)

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.5, p.163 58/62

 
Pf:
A x = b, det( A)  0
1 1
x A b  adj ( A)b
det( A)
C11 C21  Cn1   b1 
  
1 C12 C22  Cn 2  b2 

det( A)       
  
C1n C2 n  Cnn  bn 
b1C11  b2C21    bnCn1 
b C  b2C22    bnCn 2 
1  1 12 

det( A)    
b C  b2C2 n    bnCnn 
 1 1n
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.5, p.163 59/62
 1
 xj  (b1C1 j  b2C2 j    bnCnj )
det( A)
det( A j )
 j  1 ,2 ,  , n
det( A)

Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.5, p.163 60/62

 
Ex 4: Use Cramer’s rule to solve the system of linear equations.
 x  2 y  3z  1
2x  z  0
3x  4 y  4 z  2
Sol: 1 2  3 1 2 3
det( A)  2 0 1  10 det( A1 )  0 0 1 8
3 4 4 2 4 4
1 1  3 1 2 1
det( A2 )  2 0 1  15, det( A3 )  2 0 0  16
3 2 4 3 4 2
det( A1 ) 4 det( A2 )  3 det( A3 )  8
x  y  z 
det( A) 5 det( A) 2 det( A) 5
Elementary Linear Algebra: Section 3.5, p.163 61/62
Keywords in Section 3.5:

matrix of cofactors : 餘因子矩陣

adjoint matrix : 伴隨矩陣

Cramer’s rule : Cramer 法則

62/62