DISCLAIMER

In preparation of these slides, materials have been taken from

different online sources in the shape of books, websites, research
papers and presentations etc. However, the author does not have
any intention to take any benefit of these in her/his own name. This
lecture (audio, video, slides etc) is prepared and delivered only for
educational purposes and is not intended to infringe upon the
copyrighted material. Sources have been acknowledged where
applicable. The views expressed are presenter’s alone and do not
necessarily represent actual author(s) or the institution.
2
 DISCLAIMER

In preparation of these slides, materials have been taken from

different online sources in the shape of books, websites, research
papers and presentations etc. However, the author does not have
any intention to take any benefit of these in her/his own name. This
lecture (audio, video, slides etc) is prepared and delivered only for
educational purposes and is not intended to infringe upon the
copyrighted material. Sources have been acknowledged where
applicable. The views expressed are presenter’s alone and do not
necessarily represent actual author(s) or the institution.
4
Introduction
Storage Structure
I/O Structure
I/O Communication Techniques
Three techniques are possible for I/O operations:
 Programmed I/O
 Interrupt-driven I/O
 Direct Memory Access (DMA)

(From William Stallings Book)

Programmed I/O
 The I/O module performs the requested action, then sets the
appropriate bits in the I/O status register.
 It is the responsibility of the processor to check the status of
the I/O module periodically until it finds that the operation
is complete.
 The processor is responsible for extracting data from main
memory for output and storing data in main memory for
input.
 The instruction set includes I/O instruction in the Control,
Status and Transfer category.
 It is a time-consuming process that keeps the processor
busy needlessly.
(From William Stallings Book)
(From William Stallings Book)
Interrupt-Driven I/O
 It is better than programmed I/O because it eliminates
needless waiting.
 The processor issue an I/O command to a module and then
go on to do some other useful work.
 The I/O module will then interrupt the processor to request
service when it is ready to exchange data with the
processor.
 The processor then executes the data transfer, then resumes
its former processing.
 It consumes a lot of processor time, because every word of
data that goes from memory to I/O module or from I/O
module to memory must pass through the processor.
(From William Stallings Book)
(From William Stallings Book)
Direct Memory Access
 The DMA function can be performed by a separate
module on the system bus or it can be incorporated into an
I/O module.
 When the processor wishes to read or write a block of
data, it issues a command to the I/O module, by sending
the DMA module with the information: whether read or
write is requested, the address of I/O device involved, the
starting location in memory to read from or write to, the
number of words to be read or written.
 The processor then continues with other work.
 It has delegated this I/O operation to the DMA module,
which will take care of it, and thus processor is involve at
the beginning and at the end of transfer. (From William Stallings Book)
(From William Stallings Book)
Cache Memory
 Cache memory is invisible to the operating system.
 It increase the speed of memory.
 The rate at which the processor can execute instructions is
clearly limited by the memory cycle time.
 Over the years, the processor speed has consistently
increased more rapidly than memory access speed.
 It is too expensive strategy if main memory is built with
the same technology as that of processor.
 Cache is a small, fast memory between the processor and
the main memory.

(From William Stallings Book)

(From William Stallings Book)
Cache Principles
 It contains a copy of the portion of main memory.
 When the processor attempts to read a word of memory, a
check is made to determine if the word is in cache, if so,
word is delivered to the processor.
 If not, a block of main memory, consisting of fixed
number of words, is read into the cache, and then
delivered to the processor.
 It consists of C slots of K words, and the number of slots
is considerably less than the number of main memory
blocks.

(From William Stallings Book)

Cache Read Operation

(From William Stallings Book)

(From William Stallings Book)
Cache Design
 Cache Size:
 Small caches have significant impact on performance.
 Block Size:
 Block size is the unit of data exchanged between cache and
main memory.
 hit means the information was found in the cache
 As block size increases, more useful data is brought into the
cache.
 larger block size more hits until probability of using newly
fetched data becomes less than the probability of reusing
data that has been moved out of cache

(From William Stallings Book)

Contd…
 Mapping Function
 Determines which cache location the block will occupy, when a
new block of data is read into the cache.
 Two constraints affect the design of mapping function:
replacement technique and the circuitry required to search the
cache.
 Replacement Algorithm
 Chooses which block to replace when a new block is to be
loaded into the cache and the cache has already slots filled with
other blocks.
 Least Recently Used (LRU) algorithm

(From William Stallings Book)

Contd…
 Write Policy
 If the contents of the block in the cache are altered, then it is
necessary to write
 Dictates when memory write operation takes place.
 Can occur every time block is updated
 Can occur only when block is replaced
 Minimizes memory operations
 Leaves memory in an obsolete state

(From William Stallings Book)

Computer System Architecture
A computer-system can be categorize according to the
number of general-purpose processors used.
 Single Processor System
 Multi Processor System
 Clustered Systems
Single Processor System
 One main CPU capable of executing a general-purpose
instructions set, including instruction from user processes
 Almost all systems have other special purpose processors
as well, they run limited instruction set and do not run
user processes
 Sometimes, managed by operating system, sends
information about the next task and monitors their status
 Sometimes, special purpose processors are low level
components built into the hardware, in that case operating
system cannot communicate with these processors, they
do their job autonomously.
Multi-Processor Systems
 Two or more processors in close communication, sharing
the computer bus and sometimes the clock, memory and
peripheral devices.
 Also known as parallel systems or tightly coupled systems
 Advantages:
 Increased Throughput
 Economy of Scale
 Increased Reliability
 Graceful Degradation: The ability to continue providing
service proportional to the level of surviving hardware.
 Fault Tolerant: Go beyond the graceful degradation.
(detected, diagnose and if possible, corrected)
Contd…
Two types of multi processor system
 Asymmetric Multiprocessing
 Each processor is assigned a specific task
 A master/boss processor controls the system
 Master-slave/boss-worker relationship
 The master/boss processor schedules and allocate work to
slave/worker processor
 Symmetric Multiprocessing
 Each processor performs all tasks within the operating system
 All processors are peers
 No master-slave relationship
 Advantage: many processors can run simultaneously
Contd…
 A recent CPU design is to include multiple computer
cores on a single chip
 These multi core CPU’s look to the operating system just
as N standard processors
Clustered System
 Cluster computers share storage and are closely linked via
LAN networking.
 Clustering provides high reliability.
 In clustering, a layer of cluster software runs on the cluster
nodes and each node can monitor one or more of the
others over the LAN.
 If the monitored machine fails, the monitoring node can
take ownership of its storage and restart the applications
that were running on the failed machine after a brief
interruption.
Contd…
 In an asymmetric clustering, one machine is in hot
standby mode while the other is running the applications.
The hot standby host (server) does nothing but monitors
the active server. If that server fails, the hot standby host
becomes the active server.
 In symmetric clustering, all N hosts are running the
applications and they are monitoring each other.
 Parallel clusters allow multiple hosts to access the same
data on the shared storage. Oracle parallel server has been
designed to run on parallel clusters and each machine has
full access to all data in the database.
Operating System Structure
 Multiprogramming needed for efficiency
 Single user cannot keep either CPU or I/O devices busy
at all times
 Multiprogramming increase CPU utilization, organizes
jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one to execute
 Job Pool: contain all the jobs that enter the system
 A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory which
is less than the total number of jobs in the job pool
 One job selected and run via job scheduling
 When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to
another job
 When the job gets finishes waiting and gets the CPU
back
Contd…
 Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which
CPU switches jobs so frequently that users can interact
with each job while it is running, creating interactive
computing
 Gives instructions to the operating system or to the user directly
using keyboard or mouse
 Response time should be < 1 second
 Each user has at least one program executing in memory
process
 Give the impression to the user, that system is entirely
dedicated to his use
 If several jobs ready to run at the same time  CPU scheduling
Contd…
 Interactive I/O typically runs at “people speed”, it may take a
long time to complete
 If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and
out to run
 Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely
in memory, enabling users to run programs that are larger than
actual physical memory
Operating System Operations
 Modern operating systems are interrupt driven
 Software error or request creates exception or trap
 Division by zero, invalid memory access, request for operating system
service
 For each type of interrupt, separate segments of code in
the operating system determine which action to take
 Other process problems include infinite loop, processes
modifying each other or the operating system
 More subtle errors occur in multiprogramming, where one
erroneous program might modify another program, the
data of another program, or even the operating system
itself
Dual Mode Operation
 Need to distinguish between execution of user defined code
and operating system code for the proper execution of
operating system
 Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other
system components
 User mode and kernel mode
 Mode bit provided by hardware
 Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code or
kernel code
 Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in kernel
mode
 System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to user
 At system boot time, the hardware starts in kernel
mode.
Contd…
 Hardware allows privileged instructions to be executed
only in kernel mode
 System call provide the means for a user program to ask
the operating system to perform tasks reserved for the
operating system on the user program behalf
Timer
 Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources
(return control to operating system)
 Set interrupt after specific period
 Variable counter implement by fixed clock rate
 Operating system decrements counter
 When counter zero generate an interrupt
 Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate
program that exceeds allotted time
Process Management
 A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work
within the system. Program is a passive entity, process is
an active entity.
 Process needs resources to accomplish its task
 CPU, memory, I/O, files
 Initialization data
 Resources given when process is first created, or allocated
when it is running
 Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable
resources
 Single-threaded process has one program counter
specifying location of next instruction to execute
 Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until
completion
Contd..
 Multi-threaded process has one program counter per
thread
 Typically system has many processes, some user, some
operating system running concurrently on one or more
CPUs
 The operating system is responsible for the following
activities in connection with process management:
 Creating and deleting both user and system processes
 Suspending and resuming processes
 Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
 Providing mechanisms for process communication
 Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling

Memory Management
 Main memory is the large array of words or bytes ranging
in size
 Each word or byte has its own address
 All data in memory before and after processing
 All instructions in memory in order to execute
 Mapped into absolute addresses in order to execute
 After termination of process, memory space becomes
available
 Memory management determines what is in memory
when
 Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users
Contd…
 Memory management activities
 Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being
used and by whom
 Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move
into and out of memory
 Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed
Storage Management
 Operating System provides uniform, logical view of
information storage
 Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
 Maps file onto physical media and access these files via
the storage devices
File Management System
 Computer store information on the physical media.
 Each medium has its own characteristics and physical organization
 Each medium is controlled by a device that has its own unique
properties
 Properties include access speed, capacity, data transfer rate, and access
method (sequential or random)
 File are organized into directories
 Access control on most systems to determine who can access what
 OS activities include
 Creating and deleting files and directories
 Primitives to manipulate files and directories
 Mapping files onto secondary storage
 Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media
Mass Storage Management
 Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in main memory or data
that must be kept for a “long” period of time.
 Proper management is of central importance
 Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem and its
algorithms
 OS activities
 Free-space management
 Storage allocation
 Disk scheduling

 Some storage need not be fast

 Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape
 Still must be managed
 Varies between WORM (write-once, read-many-times) and RW (read-
write)
Caching
 Important principle of computer systems
 Information in use copied from slower to faster storage
temporarily
 Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if
information is there
 If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
 If not, data copied to cache and used there
 Cache smaller than storage being cached
 Cache management important design problem
 Cache size and replacement policy
Performance of Various Levels of Storage
I/O Systems
 One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of hardware
devices from the user
 I/O subsystem responsible for
 Memory management of I/O including buffering (storing data
temporarily while it is being transferred), caching (storing parts
of data in faster storage for performance), spooling (the
overlapping of output of one job with input of other jobs)
 General device-driver interface
 Drivers for specific hardware devices
 Only the device driver knows the peculiarities of the
specific device to which it is assigned
Protection & Security
 When there are multiple users, and allow concurrent
execution of multiple processes, then there is need to
regulate the access of data
 There should be mechanism that ensures that files,
memory segment, CPU and other resources can only be
operated by only those processes that have gained proper
authorization from the operating system
 Example:
 Memory addressing hardware
 Timer
Contd….
 Protection : any mechanism for controlling access of
processes or users to resources defined by the OS.
 Improve reliability be detecting latent errors at the
interface
 Adequate protection, still prone to failure
 Security :defense of the system against internal and
external attacks
 Huge range, including denial-of-service (use all system
resources), worms (malware computer program that
replicates itself), viruses, identity theft, theft of service
(unauthorized use of system)
Contd….
 For protection and security, systems generally first
distinguish among users, to determine who can do what
 User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name
and associated number, one per user
 User ID then associated with all files, processes of that
user to determine access control
 Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be
defined and controls managed, then also associated with
each process, file
 Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective
ID with more rights
Kernel Data Structures
 It tells the way the data are structured in the system
 Several fundamental data structures used extensively in
operating system
 Lists, Stacks and Queues
 Trees
 Hash Functions and Maps
 Bitmaps
Lists, Stacks and Queues
 An array is a simple data structure in which each element
can be accessed directly
 For example, main memory is constructed as an array
 After arrays, lists are perhaps the most fundamental data
structures in computer science
 Lists represent the collection of data values as a sequence
 Singly Linked List
 Doubly Linked List
 Circularly Linked List
 A stack is a sequentially ordered data structure that uses
the LIFO principle for adding & removing items
 A queue is a sequentially ordered data structure that uses
the FIFO principle for adding & removing items
Trees
 A tree is a data structure that can be used to represent data
hierarchically
 Data values in a tree structure are linked through parent-
child relationships
Hash Functions and Maps
 A hash function takes data as its input, performs a numeric
operation on this data , and returns a numeric value
 This numeric value can then be used as an index into a
table to quickly retrieve the data
 One potential difficulty with hash functions is that two
inputs can result in the same output value, that is, they can
link to the same table location
Bitmaps
 A bitmap is a string of n binary digits that can be used to
represent the status of n items
 For example, suppose we have several resources, and the
availability of each resource is indicated by the value of binary
digit
 0 means that the resource is available
 1 means that it is unavailable
 001011101
 The power of bitmaps becomes apparent when we
consider their space efficiency
 A bitmap can be used to indicate the availability of each
disk block
Computing Environments
 Traditional Computing
 Mobile Computing
 Distributed Systems
 Client-Server Computing
 Peer-to-Peer Computing
 Virtualization
 Cloud Computing
 Real Time Embedded Systems
Traditional Computing
 PCs, terminals, laptops etc attached to the network,
portability achieved by the use of laptop
 Establishing portal, provide web accessibility to the
internal servers
 They can also connect to the wireless network to use web
portal
 Firewall is used to protect network from security breaches
Mobile Computing
 Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs such as Palm-Pilots or
cellular telephones) with connectivity to a network such as
Internet.
 Small size, weigh less than one-half pound.
 Issues:
 Limited memory
 Slow processors
 Small display screens (web clipping is used to display the
contents in web pages)
 Some handheld devices also use wireless technology (WAP)
allowing remote access to e-mail and web browsing.
 Major benefits of handheld systems are convenience and
portability.
Distributed System
 A collection of physically separate, possibly
heterogeneous computer systems, networked to provide
user accesses to resources that system maintained
 Increased computation speed, functionality, data
availability and reliability
 Network either through LAN, WAN, MAN
 Networks vary by the protocols used , the distances
between the nodes and the transport media
 Termed as loosely-coupled systems because processors do
not share memory or clock
 Such OS needs more advance features for scheduling and
memory management
Contd…
 Distributed processors may vary in size and function
(small microprocessors, workstations, mini-computers and
a large general-purpose computers)
 Processors/sites/nodes/computers communicate through
high-speed communication lines such as high-speed
buses, telephone line, satellites, microwave dishes, radios
etc.
 May be either client-server or peer-to-peer systems
Client-Server Computing
 One of the structure of distributed system
 Many of the today’s system act as server system to satisfy
the requirement generated by the client system
 Server is bottleneck
 Categorization of Server system: Computer Server and File
Server
 Compute Server System: provides the interface to which
client can send request to perform an action. Example,
server running a database
 File Server System: provides a file-system interface where
client can create, update, read and delete files. Example:
web server
Client-Server Computing
Peer to Peer Computing
 Another structure of distributed system
 All nodes within the system are considered peers
 Each may act as a client or server depend requesting a
service or providing a service
 To participate in peer to peer system, a node first joined
the network of peers, then node can request or provide
services
 Two ways to search the desired service
 Centralized Lookup Service
 Broadcasting
Peer to Peer Computing
Virtualization
 Virtualization is a technology that allows operating system
to run as applications within other operating system
 An operating system that is natively compiled for a
particular CPU architecture runs with another operating
system also native to that CPU
Virtualization
Cloud Computing
 Cloud computing is a type of computing that delivers
computing, storage, and even applications as a service
across a network
 It’s a logical extension of virtualization, because it uses
virtualization as a base for its functionality
 Types of Cloud Computing
 Public Cloud
 Private Cloud
 Hybrid Cloud
 Software as a Service
 Platform as a Service
 Infrastructure as a Service
Real-Time Embedded System
 Car engine, manufacturing robot to VCR and microwave
oven
 Almost always run real time operating system, is used
when rigid time requirements have been placed on the
operation of processor or flow of data
 Sensors gathering information, computer analyzing it and
adjusting appropriate controls to modify the sensor inputs.
Open Source Operating Systems
 Open-source Operating Systems are those available in
source code format rather than compiled binary code
 Starting with the source code allows the programmer to
produce binary code that can be executed on the system
 Benefits include community of interested programmers
who contribute to the code by helping to debug it, analyze
it, provide support and suggest changes
Reference
 Operating Systems, Latest Edition, William Stallings
 Book: Operating System Principles , 9th Edition , Abraham
Silberschatz, Peter Baer Galvin, Greg Gagne