CHAPTER ONE

Introduction to Computer
 What is Computer?
• An electronic device for storing and processing data, typically in
binary form, according to instructions given to it in a variable
program.
• It is a collection of hardware and software components.
• Device or machine for making calculations or controlling operations
that are expressible in numerical and logical terms.
• But today’s computers not only process numbers, they process texts,
pictures, multimedia and so on.
• Generally, Computer is an electronic device; operating under the
control of instructions stored in its own memory unit and that can
accept data, process data, produce output and store the results for
future use.
 Characteristics of computers
• Automatic: once a program is in the computer’s memory, it continues
without the need for human intervention until completion.
• Speed: a computer is a very fast device.
• A powerful computer is capable of performing billion (109) simple
arithmetic operations per second.
• Accuracy: The computer’s accuracy is consistently high.
• Storage capacity: computers help to save space and economy by
storing very large amount of data.
• Diligence: unlike human beings, a computer is free from boredom,
tiredness, lack of concentration.
 Characteristics of computers(cont…)
• Versatility:
• It is the capability of a computer to perform different kinds of works with same
accuracy and efficiency.
• Power of remembering:
• A computer can store and recall huge amount of information because of its
secondary storage capability.
• No IQ: Intelligent Quotient is zero.
• It works only within the limits of what it has been instructed to do.
• No feeling:
• They have no feelings and no instincts because they are machines.
• Resource sharing
 Application of computers
• Today, every company is now directly or indirectly dependent on
computers for information processing.
Science: scientists have been using computers to develop theories, to
analysis, and test the data.
E.g. detail study of how earth quakes affect buildings or population
affect weather pattern, satellite based application.
Medicine and health care: now doctors are using computers right
from diagnosing the illness to monitoring a patient’s status during
complex surgery.
 Application of computers(cont…)

• Engineering (architectures): the architects and engineering are

extremely using computers in designing and drawings.
• Entertainment: computers are used to control the images and sounds.
• Communication: E-mail or electronic mail is one of the communication
media in which computer is used.
• Business application: There are various concerns for which computer are
used such as in business applications (like at the sale counter) that
requires immediate response from computer.
 Application of computers (cont…)
• Banking:- In the field of banking and insurance computers are
extensively used. People can use the ATM (Automatic Teller Machine)
services 24 hours of the day in order to deposit and withdraw cash.
• Industries:- It is used for designing products, assisting labors,
controlling the work of the machineries in factory etc..
 Limitation of computers
• Computers can’t decide how to be programmed. It is always persons
or humans that are responsible for programming the computers.
• Computers can only perform what it is programmed to do, nothing
more and nothing less.
• Computers don’t provide their own inputs unless people provide it
with the inputs.
• Interpretation of data and implementation of decisions is always left
for humans.
 Generation of computers
• All modern computers can be categorized in to five generation:-

 First generation

Second generation

Third generation

Fourth generation

Fifth generation
 First generation(1940s-1950s)
• It uses vacuum tubes as main component
• It is very big ,expensive & slow
• It required extensive air condition
• It generates large heat
• It uses magnetic drums for memory
• It uses punched cards and paper tape for input purpose.
• Output was displayed on printouts.
 Second generation(1950s-1960s)
• It uses Transistors replaced vacuum tubes
• B/c of the transistors, the computer becomes smaller in size, fast in
speed & more reliable than 1st generation.
• It uses punched cards for input and printouts for output
• It controls by Assembly programming language
• Magnetic tape is introduced for store data
 Third generation(1960s-1970s)
• Integrated circuits(IC) called chips are replaced to transistor. IC is a
collection transistor.
Because of IC, Computers became:-
• Smaller in size & power requirement
• Very fast & more reliable
• Magnetic disk is replaced to magnetic tape storage device.
• It uses keyboard instead of punched cards.
• It uses monitors instead of printout.
• It uses operating system which allows the computer to run many
applications at one time with a central program that monitored the
memory.
 Fourth generation(1970s-present)
• It uses Microprocessor replaces Integrated Circuit.
• Thousands of Integrated Circuits are built onto a single silicon Chip.
• Cheaper in price
• More powerful
• Efficient &reliable
• It uses Graphical user interface and mouse.
 Five Generation(present-future)
• It uses an artificial intelligence & interact with the natural language
• The main is to narrow the gap b\n human being and computer.
 Data and Information
• Data:- Data is raw and unorganized fact that required to be processed
to make it meaningful.
• Data is meaningless.
• Letters, numbers, combination of both letters and numbers
• Data is essential raw material for the creation of information
 Information( Data + meaning )

• Organized or structured data, which has been processed in such a way

that the information now has relevance for a specific purpose or
context, and is therefore meaningful, valuable, useful and relevant.”

• Information is processed, organized and meaningful data.

• Provides answers to the who, what, where and when type questions.
Knowledge(Information + understanding)
• Information read, heard, or seen, and understood.
• General awareness or possession of information.

Wisdom - Distilled and integrated knowledge and understanding

 Data processing
• Data processing occurs when data is collected and translated into
usable information.
 Stage of data processing
Step 1: Data collection: data is collected from available source
Step 2: Data preparation: pre-processing data which means cleaning data
and organized data for the following stage
Step 3: Data input: cleaned data entered into its destination and translated
into a language that it can understand.
Step 4:Processing: processing is done using machine learning algorithm.
Step 5: Data output: data is finally usable, it is translated, readable.
Step 6: Data storage: finally processed data is stored for future use.
 Types of computers classifications

• Computers can be classified according to purpose, data handling, and

functionality.
Classification
of computers
Based on
Functionality, size,
cost and speed
Based on Data
Based on handling (processing)
Purpose
Micro computer

General
Mini Computer
Analog Digital

Specific
Mainframe Computer
Hybrid

Super Computer
 Computers classification according to purpose

1. General purpose

• These machines can be used for various applications, ranging from

scientific as well as business applications.

• Even though such computers are versatile, they generally lack in speed
and efficiency.

• Computers that you use home and schools are general purpose
computers.
 Computers classification…contd’
2. Specific purpose

• Designed to handle a specific problem or to perform a single specific

task built into the machine.

• They can be providing the result very quickly and effectively.

• These computers are used for airline reservation, satellite tracking, and
air traffic control.
 Classification of computers according to the
method of operation (data handling)

• Computers are classified into three by the way they process data:-

1. Analog computers

2. Digital computers

3. Hybrid computers
Analog computers

• Analog computers which are operate by measuring.

• They deal with continues variable.
• They do not compute directly with numbers, rather, they operate by
measuring physical magnitude such as pressure temperature,
voltage, current and etc.
E.g. Thermometer, voltmeter, speedometer
• Analog computer has very low or limited memory
• It can store less amount of data
Digital computers
• They operate by counting rather than measuring.
• They operate directly upon numbers (or digits) that represent numbers,
letters, or other special symbols.
• Digital computer is a computing device in which data is represented by
discrete numerical quantities.
• It is represented by discrete numerical states (0s and 1s)
E.g. Personal Computers
• They have very high accuracy and speed than analog one
Hybrid Computers
• The best features of analog and digital computers can be combined
into a single device to form a hybrid computer.
• It processes the information by collecting input data with analog
method, converts it into digital quantities, processes the digital
values and converts the output from digital to analog form.
• Example:
• Gasoline station: fuel vending machine measure the amount of fuel
via analog and display the result in digital form.
• Ultrasound machine
Classification of computers according to functionality
• Based on the functionality (size, speed, cost and performance) we can
divide digital computers in to four categories.
1. Microcomputers
2. Minicomputers
3. Mainframes
4. Supercomputer
Microcomputers
• Microcomputer (often called personal computers or PCs for short) are the
smallest but most important and most frequently used of computer
particularly for end users.
• Basically they can be grouped into three:
1. Laptop
2. Palmtop
3. Desktop.
Microcomputers are used for:
• Word processing (automated, electronic typing and editing) to prepare letters,
reports and other documents.
• Computerized worksheet analysis and modeling: This computerizes business
performance and assists decision-making activities.
• Graphics in the generation of charts and other graphic images: This visually
enhances both the analysis and presentation of information in reports and group
presentations.
• Engineering activities: Computer-aided design and analysis can be performed by
the use of powerful microcomputers.
• Personal and home use: Entertainment, home management, personal finances,
education, and other activities can easily supported by the use of personal computers.
 Minicomputers

• Minicomputers are larger and more powerful than most microcomputers.

• Minicomputers are being used for a large number of business and scientific
applications.
• They are popularly used in scientific laboratories, research centers,
universities and colleges, engineering firms, industrial process monitoring
and control etc.
• Unlike microcomputer it uses multiple processors.
Mainframe
• Mainframe computers are large, powerful computers that are physically
larger than micros and minis and usually have processors with faster
instruction processing speeds.
• For example, they may be able to process from 10 to 200 million instructions
per second (MIP).
• A mainframe computer is generally found in a special computer room where
environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, dust and air conditions
are closely monitored.
• Mainframe computers are designed to handle the information processing
need of organization with many employees and customers or with complex
computational problems.
Supercomputer

• A supercomputer is generally characterized as being the fastest, most

powerful, and most expensive computer.
• Super computers are largely used by research organizations, military
defense systems, national weather forecasting agencies, large
corporations, aircraft manufacturer, etc.
• As many as sixty miles of wiring are closely packed inside
supercomputers, and tremendous amounts of heat are generated.
• Because of this, supercomputers demand special cooling requirement
and the room itself should be air-conditioned.
Thank you!
 Quiz 5%
1. Define in detail the definition of computers(1%)
2. List and discuss at least five characteristics of computers(2%)
3. Discuss three applications of computers(2%)
 CHAPTER TWO
Computer System

• Computer is a data processing machine which consists of several interrelated components

that work together as a single unit.

• Basically the computer system is categorized into two components:

 Hardware component

 Software component

1. Computer Hardware
• The computer hardware is the physical part of the computer system, which we can touch
and see.
• It includes electronic devices, which have the potential for performing the task of solving
problems.
 CONT
• The computer hardware is composed of three main components namely:
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 Memory unit(Storage devices)
 Input /Output devices
1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
• It is the part of a computer hardware that executes program instructions.
• It performs Arithmetic and Logical operations and controls the operations
of the other elements of the system.
 In general the CPU has two major functions:
 Performing arithmetic and logical operation and
 Controlling every activity of the computer like:
 Controlling internal and external devices
 CONT
 Controlling memory usage for storing data and instruction.
 Controlling sequence of operation.
Component of CPU
• The CPU has three(3) major components:

 The Control Unit

 The Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU)

 Register
Control Unit
• The control unit is like the human brain and it controls all of the activities of
computer.
 CONT..
• It directs the entire computer system to carry out every activity.
• Reads instruction from a memory and translates it into an activity; and
regulates the amount of CPU time that each operation may consume.
• The control unit does not actually execute the instructions (just as the brain
does not do the walking or the talking); rather it instructs or directs other
processing elements to do so.
• Fetches and store data and instruction from memory to register and vice
versa.
• It receives an instruction, decodes/ interprets and passes it to the ALU for
execution.
• The control unit tells the rest of the computer system how to carry out a
program's instructions.
 CONT..
• It directs the movement of electronic signals between:
 Main memory and the arithmetic/logic unit
 Main memory and the input and output devices
• Arithmetic/LogicUnit(ALU)
Is the component of the CPU which contains the electronic circuitry that
executes arithmetic and logical operations.
• Arithmetic unit:- perform actual computing and calculations based on
fundamental mathematical operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division
• Logical unit: - based on the instruction provided to it, perform logical
comparison between data items.
• The comparison determines whether one information is greater than, less
than or equal to the other. That is, A = B, A > B, A < B, A>=B, A<=B
 Registers
• Registers are special high-speed circuitry areas that temporarily hold data, keep track
instructions, and hold the location and results of operations under the control of CU.
• Registers are contained in the processor and hold data to be processed immediately.
• Used to temporarily store data and instruction that relate to the process being executed
• Data and program instructions are loaded from main memory into the registers just before
processing
Memory Unit
• Computer systems need to store data and instruction internally or external to the system.
Memory is a location that holds data and instruction.

• There are two categories of memories:

 Primary memory/storage

 Secondary memory/storage
Primary memory (Main /Internal
Memory)
• Main memory is part of the computer that holds data and instruction
for processing.
• In general it can be used:
To hold data and instruction temporarily receiving from input
devices and sending them to output devices during processing
To store data necessary while execution
To provide additional space for programs in execution.
To hold the computers operating system program.
To hold instructions of application software. E.g. Word
processing, spreadsheet, etc.
 Memory size (storage capacity)

• Computer only can understand two circuit states “on” or “off”.

• “On or high voltage” is a state represented by “1” and “off or low
voltage” is a state represented by “0”.
• Everything that the computer does is based on the combination of
“1’s” and “0’s”.
• The 1’s and 0’s are known as bit’s, which are the smallest memory
unit.
• The size of memory is measured by the number of storage locations it
contains.
• A byte is the amount of memory required to store one digit, letter or
character
Cont..
 Cont..
• Main Memory is divided into two:

Read Only Memory (ROM)

Random Access Memory (RAM).

1. Read-Only Memory (ROM)

• ROM is used to store initial start-up instruction and routines in BIOS (basic
input/output system), which can only read by the CPU.

• The contents of ROM are not lost even in case of sudden power failure, thus making it
non-volatile in nature.

• ROM is random access in nature which means the CPU can randomly access any
location within the ROM.
 Random-Access Memory (RAM)
• A kind of memory that can be instantly changed is called read-write
memory or random-access memory (RAM).
• RAM can be defined as a block of sequential memory location, each of
which has a unique address determining the location and those locations
containing the data element.
• A memory address is a number that indicates a location on the memory
chips.
• Memory addresses start at zero and go up to one less than the number of
bytes of memory in the computer.
• RAM is referred to as random-access memory because of its ability to access
every byte of data directly.
• ROM is permanent while the data in RAM changes constantly (i.e. it is
volatile in nature).
 Speed of Computer

• Computers processing speed can be increased by the following factors:-

1. Cache memory
 Cache memory is special form of memory that holds frequently
accessed data or program instructions to improve the computer system's
performance.
 A special form of high-speed memory that eliminates the need to move
data to and from main memory repeatedly.
 A cache consists of ultra fast static random-access memory (SRAM)
chips, which rapidly move data to CPU.
 Cache memory acts as a temporary holding/processing cell.
• As data requests pass between the CPU and main memory, they travel
through cache memory and are copied there.
• Subsequent requests for the same data are recognized and captured by the
cache memory cell.
 2. Coprocessors
• When certain task is performed again and again, special purpose chips
can be designed to handle it quickly and efficiently.
• These chips, called coprocessor chips are mounted on the processor
board and function simultaneously with the primary processor chip.
• Operations performed by the coprocessor may be floating point
arithmetic, graphics, signal processing, string processing, or
encryption…
• For example, Math coprocessor chips are used frequently by scientist
and engineers who need to do large amount of intensive calculations.
System Unit
What is system unit?
 System unit is the part of a computer that houses the primary devices that
perform operations and produce results for complex calculations.
 Cont..
System unit, also known as a “tower” or “chassis,” contains the main components of personal
computer
 It includes the main component like:-
 Motherboard
 CPU
 RAM
Other Major System Unit Components
• The Motherboard:-The motherboard, also called the system board, is the main
circuit board in the system unit.
• The motherboard acts as a container for the different components in the system
unit:
Microprocessor
Coprocessor chips
RAM chips
ROM chips
 Cont..
• Computer Bus: It links the computer's main components, CPU, memory,
control logic and I/O devices.
• In other words, it is simply a pathway through which data travels from one
place to another in side the system unit.
• A bus that connects CPU, memory, and I/O components is known as system
bus.
• System bus has three main variations:
a. Data bus
b. Address bus
c. Control bus
• The data bus: is used to transfer data from memory to CPU or vice versa.
• The size of a data bus is typically can be 8, 16, 32, or 64 bits.
 Cont..
• The Address bus: is a set of wires carrying the addressing information used to describe
the memory location to which the data is being sent or from which the data is being
retrieved.
• The Control bus: carries signal that tell the computer to read or write data to/or from a
given memory location, input device or output device.
• Secondary memory (External memory)

• Secondary memories are a kind of memory which are external to the main
circuit board and connected through a cable.

• Unlike RAM, it is a part of the computer that retains data permanently after
the power is turned OFF.

• Unlike ROM, it is possible to write to the secondary storage anytime.

 Cont.…
• Secondary storage's can be categorized as:

 Magnetic storage and

 Optical storage
• Magnetic storage:- They use a magnetic technology to read and write data from
and to the surface of storage area.
• The most common types of magnetic storage are:
• Magnetic tape
• Magnetic disc
• Data are stored on a magnetic tape by running the tape over the
electromagnetic read/write head known as tape dive or streamer, which
magnetizes small spots on the tape.
• It stores data sequentially.
 Magnetic disc
• Magnetic disks allow to store and access information randomly and
overcome the slow access time commonly found in tape files.
• The most common magnetic disk includes floppy, flash and hard disks.
• Floppy:- It used to store programs and data for a longer period outside the
computer system.
• Have low access time
• Hard disks

• Hard disks can store enormous amounts of data, but it HAS lower
access time than RAM.

• But accessing data from hard disk is faster than accessing data
from floppy disk.
 Optical disk/storage
• Optical storage devices use the principle of light (laser technology) to store information.

• The data is actually recorded by burning on a tiny hole which is called pitch to store 0’s /1’s.
• The two common types are:
 CD and
 DVD
• Compact disk (CD)
• CD is a form of data storage device that uses optical material rather than magnetic
material.
• Have three variation, these are:-

 CD-R (CD Recordable, record/write once but read many times).

 CD-RW (CD rewritable, read/write many times).

 CD-ROM (CD read only memory).

 DVD ( Digital Versatile Disc)
• Looks like a CD-ROM, but it can store more than 4 Gigabytes (GB) of
information.
• DVDs are often used to store full-length movies and other multimedia
content that requires large amounts of storage space.
• DVD-ROM: stands for a DVD Read-Only Memory. This means you can
only read information from a DVD; you can’t add new information.
• DVD+R: (DVD Recordable) disc. The information you write or burn to a
DVD+R is permanent and can’t be changed or erased.
• DVD+RW (Rewritable) discs can be re-written to up to 1,000 times. You
can also modify and erase information on a DVD+RW disc. It uses
DVD+RW drives which can also write to DVD+R discs.
 Input/ Output Devices
• Input/ Output (I/O) devices are the part of the hardware through which the users
communicate with the machine.
• Input devices:- are electro mechanical devices that use to feed information to the computer.
• These devices enable a computer user to enter data, commands, and program instruction
into the computer system.
• Examples:- Keyboard, Pointing devices, trackballs, joysticks, and touch pads, Light pens,
microphones, Scanning devices, Digital cameras, and Optical data reader.

• Output Devices: Are devices which used to convert a machine readable code in to human
readable by processing (converting) in to graphical, alphanumeric, or audiovisual form.

• In general they are a kind of peripheral device that enables a computer to communicate
(send out) information to the user.

• Example: Monitor (visual displaying unit), Printer, and speaker

 Computer Software
• Software is a general term given for an organized collection of computer data and instruction.
• Software is a collection of programs and routines that support the operations of performing a task using a computer.
• Program is set of instructions (steps) that the computer follow to perform a given job.
• Computer software is classified into two:
• System software and
• Application software
System software
• System software includes programs which are directly responsible for controlling,
integrating, and managing the individual hardware component of the computer
system.
• Computer program that help user to run the computer and able to make the computer
functional.
• They usually interact either with the hardware or the application.
• In general, system software is classified in to:
• Operating system
• Language software
 Operating system
• Operating system is the first layer of software loaded in to the computer working
memory.
• It's a program that acts as an interface between the user, the computer software and the
hardware resources.
• It provides a software platform on top of which other program can run.
• Basic functions of the operating system
• Process management
• Memory management
• Device management
• File management
• Security management
• User interfacing
• Coordination of communication on the network.
 Language software
• Language software is also called as programming software (development software).

• Language software enables to develop an application or even the operating system

software.

• These categories of software enable to write a set of instruction so as to develop software.

• Application Software
• Is software that is designed to perform tasks in specific areas.
• It is developed using language software and includes a set of related programs
designed to carry certain task.
• Depending on their function or task they are categorized in to the following:-
• Word Processors/ Word processing:
• Database management system:
 Database
What is database?
• A database is an Organized collection of related data.
• Is a logically coherent, organized collection of similar data.
• Similar data refers to a collection of data, which is stored based on the same context.
• We frequently use a database in our everyday life.
• Dictionary is one of the most common example of the database, where words are
arranged alphabetically.
• Similarly a telephone directory is another example of a database, where the names of
the telephone subscribers are listed in alphabetical order.
A database has the following implicit properties:
• A database represents some aspect of the real world, sometimes called the mini
world or the Universe of Discourse (UoD).
• A database is a logically coherent collection of data with some inherent meaning.
 Cont..
• A database is designed, built, and populated with data for a specific purpose.
• Database has some source from which data are derived, some degree of interaction with events in
the real world, and an audience that is actively interested in the contents of the database.
• Database Management System
Database Management System is software package that designed to create , maintain and
retrieve information from database.
• The primary goal of a DBMS is to provide a way to store and retrieve database information that
is both convenient and efficient.
• It allows the user to store, update, and retrieve data.
• The DBMS is a general-purpose software system that facilitates the processes of:
 Defining (data structure, type and constraints)
 Constructing
Manipulating (querying and updating)
 Sharing databases among various users and applications.
Protection(both system protection against HW or SW malfunction(or crashes),and security
protection against unauthorized or malicious access
 • The End of Chapter Two
Thank you for your listening!
If you have:-
Question
Suggestion And
Comment
Wel come!
 Quiz 10%
1. Compare and contrast Hardware & Software
2. At least, list three and above the examples of Input & Output
device.
3. Discuss the word of Operating Systems
4. Define the System SW and Application SW with the example.
 CHAPER 3
DATA REPRESENTATION AND NUMBER
SYSTEM
What is Data Representation in Computer?
• A computer uses a fixed number of bits to represent a piece of data which
could be a number, a character, image, sound, video, etc.
• Data representation is the method used internally to represent data in a
computer.
• Before discussing data representation of numbers, let us see what a number
system is?
• Number Systems
• Number systems are the technique to represent numbers in the
computer system architecture, every value that you are saving or getting
into/from computer memory has a defined number system.
 CONT..
• A number is a mathematical object used to count, label, and measure.
• A number system is a systematic way to represent numbers.
• The number system we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal
number system that uses 10 symbols or digits.
• The number 289 is pronounced as two hundred and eighty-nine and it
consists of the symbols 2, 8, and 9.
• Similarly, there are other number systems.
• Each has its own symbols and method for constructing a number.
• A number system has a unique base, which depends upon the number
of symbols.
• The number of symbols used in a number system is called the base or
radix of a number system.
 CONT..
• Let us discuss some of the number systems. Computer architecture supports
the following number systems:
1. Binary Number System
2. Octal Number System
3. Decimal Number System
4. Hexadecimal Number System
1. Binary Number System
• A Binary number system has only two digits that are 0 and 1. Every number
(value) represents 0 and 1 in this number system. The base of the binary
number system is 2 because it has only two digits.
2. Octal Number System
• The octal number system has only eight (8) digits from 0 to 7. Every number
(value) represents with 0,1,2,3,4,5,6 and 7 in this number system. The base of
the octal number system is 8, because it has only 8 digits.
 CONT..
• Decimal Number System
• The decimal number system has only ten (10) digits from 0 to 9. Every
number (value) represents with 0,1,2,3,4,5,6, 7,8 and 9 in this number
system. The base of decimal number system is 10, because it has only 10
digits.
• Hexadecimal Number System
• A Hexadecimal number system has sixteen (16) alphanumeric values
from 0 to 9 and A to F. Every number (value) represents with
0,1,2,3,4,5,6, 7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E and F in this number system. The base of
the hexadecimal number system is 16, because it has 16 alphanumeric
values.
• Here A is 10, B is 11, C is 12, D is 13, E is 14 and F is 15.
CONT..
 CONT..
• Data Representation of Characters
• There are different methods to represent characters. Some of them
are discussed below:
• ASCII
• EBCDIC
• ISCH
• Unicode
 CONT.
• A unique integer number is assigned to each character. This number
called ASCII code of that character is converted into binary for storing in
memory. For example, the ASCII code of A is 65, its binary equivalent in
7-bit is 1000001.
• Since there are exactly 128 unique combinations of 7 bits, this 7-bit code
can represent only128 characters. Another version is ASCII-8, also called
extended ASCII, which uses 8 bits for each character, can represent 256
different characters.
• For example, the letter A is represented by 01000001, B by 01000010 and
so on. ASCII code is enough to represent all of the standard keyboard
characters.
 CONT..
• EBCDIC
• It stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code. This is similar to ASCII
and is an 8 bit code used in computers manufactured by International Business Machine
(IBM). It is capable of encoding 256 characters.
• If ASCII coded data is to be used in a computer that uses EBCDIC representation, it is
necessary to transform ASCII code to EBCDIC code. Similarly, if EBCDIC coded data is
to be used in an ASCII computer, EBCDIC code has to be transformed to ASCII.
• ISCH
• ISCII stands for Indian Standard Code for Information Interchange or Indian Script Code
for Information Interchange. It is an encoding scheme for representing various writing
systems of India. ISCII uses 8-bits for data representation.
• It was evolved by a standardization committee under the Department of Electronics
during 1986-88 and adopted by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). Nowadays ISCII
has been replaced by Unicode.
 CONT..
• Unicode
• Using 8-bit ASCII we can represent only 256 characters. This cannot represent all
characters of written languages of the world and other symbols. Unicode is developed
to resolve this problem. It aims to provide a standard character encoding scheme, which
is universal and efficient.
• It provides a unique number for every character, no matter what the language and
platform be. Unicode originally used 16 bits which can represent up to 65,536
characters. It is maintained by a non-profit organization called the Unicode Consortium.
• Using 8-bit ASCII we can represent only 256 characters. This cannot represent all
characters of written languages of the world and other symbols. Unicode is developed
to resolve this problem. It aims to provide a standard character encoding scheme, which
is universal and efficient.
• It provides a unique number for every character, no matter what the language and
platform be. Unicode originally used 16 bits which can represent up to 65,536
characters. It is maintained by a non-profit organization called the Unicode Consortium.
 Number System in details
• The decimal number system with which everyone is familiar uses the number 10 as its
base or radix and has 10 symbols or digits 0-9.
• For example, a decimal number X is written as an an-1… a1 a0.a-1a-2… a-m, where a’s
are one of 10 possible digits.
• The standard form (general form) and usual interpretation of this number is: 10n… 101
100 . 10-1 10-2 ... 10-m An… a1 a0 . a-1 a-2 … a-m
• Therefore, the general form of the given number is:
• X= an x 10n + … + a1x101+a0x100 + a-1 x 10-1 + … + a-m x 10-m n = ∑ ai x 10i i= -m
• Example:
• The general form of the decimal number 852.37 is equal to 8x102 +5 x101+ 2x100
+3x10-1 + 7x10-2
• Likewise, substituting any base in place of 10 will give the general form of a number to
that radix or base.
 CONT…
• In general, the standard form of a number (anan-1an-2…a1a0)m where
n, n-1, n-2, …1 and 0 is the position or weight of the digits an, an-1, an-
2, … a1, and a0 respectively and m is the base of the number is equal to:
an x mn + an-1 x mn-1 + an-2 x mn-2 + … + a2 x m2 +a1 x m1+a0 x
m0
• Example
(3462)8=3x8 3 + 4x82 + 6x81 + 2x80
• In computer science, there are four commonly used bases - namely: base
2, base 8, base 10 and base 16.
• And the number systems in these bases are binary, octal, decimal and
hexadecimal respectively.
• The following table summarizes these bases, their respective number
systems and the possible digits (symbols) for each base
 CONT..

• Base Number System Possible Symbols(digits)

•2 Binary 0 and 1
•8 Octal 0-7
• 10 Decimal 0-9
• 16 Hexadecimal 0-9 and A-F
Summary of Number systems Note that:
base n number system has n possible digits and the digits are 0 to n-1
Decimal Binary Octal Hexa-decimal
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 10 2 2
3 11 3 3
4 100 4 4
5 101 5 5
6 110 6 6
7 111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F
Conversion from One Base to Another

A. Conversion of any-base Number to a Decimal Number

A number that is represented in any base can be converted to decimal
using the following steps:
Step 1. Represent the given number in its general form
Step 2. Using decimal arithmetic simplify the general form Example:
convert the following numbers to decimal
a) (101.1)2
Solution (101.1)2 = 1x + 0x +1x+1x
= 1x4 + 0x2 + 1x1 + 1x ½
= 4 + 0 + 1 + 0.5
= 5.5
 CONT..
b) (101011)2
Solution
(101011)2=> = 1 x =1
=0 x =2
=1 x =0
= 0 x =8
=0 x =0
= 1 x = 32
(43)10
c) (724)8
Solution
(724)8 => 4 x 80 = 4
=2 x 81 = 16
=7 x 82 = 448
(468)10
d) (ABC)16
• Solution
• (ABC)16 => C x = 12 x 1 = 12
B x = 11 x 16 = 176
A x = 10 x 256 = 2560

Note: A number expressible with finite number of digits in one base

may not necessarily transform into a finite number of digits in another
bases B.
Conversion from Base 10 to Another Bases
A decimal number might have two parts: integral (left of the point) and
fractional (to the right of the point) parts. Converting these two parts
from base 10 to any other base involves the following steps:
 Cont.…
• Step 1. Convey rating the integral part of the decimal into integral part in the
desired base
• Step 2. Convert the fractional part of the decimal to a fractional number part in
the desired base
• Step 3. The number in the desired base consists of the integer obtained in step 1
followed by a base point (dot) and then followed by the fractional number part
obtained in step 2 Step 1
• Explained: To convert a decimal integer to a base B integer number
• 1. Divide the given integer by the base B
• 2. Repeat step 1 until a 0 quotient is obtained, using at each stage the quotient
from the previous stages as dividend and the base B as divisor.
The successive remainders (starting from the least significant end) are the
successive digits of the number in base B.
Example: Convert a) 125 to binary
 Chapter-4
Data communication and Computer Networking

What is Data Communication?

• Communication is the process of sharing a message.
• Data communications refers to the sharing of a virtual message.
Electronic communications, like emails and instant messages, as well
as phone calls are examples of data communications.
• Understanding data communications can be complex but here are
basics you will need to know.
Data transmission
A communication system can be defined as the collection of
hardware and software that facilitates intersystem exchange of
information between different devices
 Cont..
• When we communicate, we are sharing information. This sharing can be
local (face-to-face communication) or it may be remote
(communication over distance).
• Data communication is the exchange of data between two devices using
some form of wired or wireless transmission medium.
• For data communication to be effective, the following three fundamental
characteristics should be considered.
• Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct of the intended destination.
• Accuracy: The system must deliver data accurately (error free)
• Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner without
enough time lags.
 Elements of Data Communication
• There are five basic components in data communication system:
• Message: It is the information that is to be communicated.
• Sender: The sender is the device that sends the message
• Receiver: The receiver is device that receives the message
• Medium: The transmission medium is the physical path that communicates the
message from sender to receiver.
• Protocol: Protocol refers to a set of rules that coordinates or governs the
exchange of information.
• Both the sender and receiver should follow the same protocol to
communicate data.
• Without the protocol, the sender and receiver cannot communicate with each
other; just as a person speaking English cannot be understood by a person
who speaks only Amharic.
 Modes of Data Communication
• The manner in which data is transmitted from one location to another
location is called data transmission mode.
• There are three ways or modes for transmitting data from one location to
another. These are:-
• Simplex
• Half duplex
• Full duplex
• Simplex Mode: - In this transmission signals (information) are transmitted
in only one direction: One station is sender and the other is receiver.
• Television Transmission can be considered as an example of simplex mode
of transmission where the satellite only transmits the data to the television,
vice versa is not possible.