METABOLISM

AND
NUTRITION
Nutrition
✘ The process by which food is taken into and used by the
body, and it includes digestion, absorption, transport, and
metabolism.

✘ It is also the study of food and drink requirements for

normal body functioning.
Nutrients
✘ The chemicals taken into the body that provide energy
and building blocks for new molecules.

✘ Essential Nutrients – are nutrients that must be

ingested because the body cannot manufacture them or
is unable to manufacture adequate amounts of them.
Kilocalories
✘ Calorie (cal) – is the amount of energy (heat)
necessary to raise the temperature of 1 gram (g) of
water 1° C.

✘ Kilocalorie (kcal) – is 1000 cal and is used to express

larger amount of energy supplied by foods and released
through metabolism.
✘ 1 gram Carbohydrates yields 4 kcal of energy.
✘ 1 gram of Protein yields 4 kcal of energy.
✘ 1 gram of Fat yields 9 kcal of energy.
Overview of Metabolic Reactions

• Break down larger

molecules such as
carbohydrates, lipids, and
Catabolic proteins into smaller parts.
Reaction: • Also include breakdown of
Adenosine Triphosphate
(ATP)

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Overview of Metabolic Reactions
Anabolic Reaction or
Biosynthetic Reaction
• Synthesize larger molecules from
smaller constituent parts using ATP as
the energy source.
• Build bones, muscle mass and new
proteins, fats, and nucleic acids.
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Overview of Metabolic Reactions
• Sum of all catabolic and
anabolic reactions in the body.

Met • An organism must ingest

aboli sufficient amount of food to
maintain its metabolic rate if
sm the organism is to stay alive for
very long.

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 3 Metabolisms
Carbohydrate
Metabolism

Lipid Metabolism

Protein
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Metabolism
Carbohydrate Metabolism
Begins in the mouth, where the
enzyme salivary amylase begins
to break down complex sugars
into monosaccharide.

Monosaccharide can then be

transported across the intestinal
membrane into the bloodstream
and then to body tissues.
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Carbohydrate Metabolism

In the cells,
GLUCOSE
a six-carbon sugar, is processed through a sequence
of reactions into smaller sugars, and the energy stored
inside the molecule is released. The first step of
carbohydrate catabolism is GLYCOLYSIS.

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 Carbohydrate Metabolism
• Is the process of breaking down G
glucose into two molecules of
pyruvate
• This multistep process yields P P
two ATP molecules containing
• free energy,
Glycolysis
A A A A
T T T T

• two pyruvate molecules, P P P P

• two high energy,

• electron-carrying molecules
of NADH for metabolism and
• two molecules of water.
12 NADH –Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
Carbohydrate Metabolism
Glycolysis:
• Can take place with or without oxygen
• In the presence of oxygen, glycolysis
is the first stage of cell respiration.
• In the absence of oxygen, glycolysis
allows cells to make small amounts of
ATP through a process of
fermentation.
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Carbohydrate Metabolism
Glycolysis
takes place in
the cytoplasm.

Takes place in
the cytosol of the
cell’s cytoplasm.
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 Carbohydrate Metabolism
• In the absence of oxygen, G
pyruvate can be converted
into lactate to keep
glycolysis working.
P P
• ATP production is limited to
Anaerobic those generated by
Conditions glycolysis. WITHOUT OXYGEN
• While a total of 4 ATPs are
produced by glycolysis, 2
are needed to begin LACTATE LACTATE
glycolysis, so there is a net
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yield of 2 ATP molecules.
 Carbohydrate Metabolism
• In the presence of oxygen
pyruvate enters the Krebs
cycle, also called the
citric acid cycle, or
tricarboxylic acid cycle.
• Krebs Cycle is the
sequence of reactions by
Aerobic which most living cells
generate energy during

Conditions the process of aerobic

respiration.
• It takes place in the
mitochondria, consuming
oxygen, producing carbon
dioxide and water as
waste products, and
converting ADP to energy-
16 rich ATP.
 AEROBIC METABOLISM
CO2 + H2O
G CONSUMING
OXYGEN (WASTE
PRODUCTS)

PRODUCE HIGH PROVIDES

P P ENERGY FADH2 & ELECTRON TO
NADH OXIDATIVE
PHOSPHORYLATION
CONVERTION
WITH OXYGEN OF ADP
ENERGY RICH PRODUCE HIGH
ATP ENERGY ATP
KREB’S
CYCLE 1 MOLECULE
17 OF GLUCOSE 36 ATPs CREATED
 Carbohydrate Metabolism
• The Krebs Cycle
produces high-energy
FADH2 and NADH
molecules which
provide electrons to the
oxidative
Aerobic phosphorylation
process that generates
FADH2
Conditions more high-energy ATP
molecules. Flavin adenine
• For each molecule of dinucleotide:
glucose that is
processed in glycolysis, Cofactor created
a net of 36 ATPs can be during the Krebs
created by aerobic cycle and utilized
respiration. during the last
18 part of respiration.
Carbohydrate Metabolism
Gluconeogenesis

It is the almost the reverse of In conditions of low glucose,

glycolysis and serves to create such as fasting, starvation, or
glucose molecules for glucose- low carbohydrate diets, glucose
dependent organs, such as the can be synthesized from
brain, when glucose levels fall lactate, pyruvate, glycerol,
below normal. alanine, or glutamate.
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 Lipid Metabolism
Lipids are available to the
body from three sources:
Stored in
Can be
the adipose Synthesized
ingested in
tissue of the in the liver
the diet
body
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Lipid Metabolism
Fats ingested in the diet are digested in the small
intestine

Triglycerides are broken down into

monoglycerides and free fatty acids, then
imported across the intestinal mucosa

Once across, the triglycerides are resynthesized

and transported to the liver or adipose tissue
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Lipid Metabolism
Fatty acids are oxidized
through fatty acid or β-
oxidation into two-carbon
acetyl CoA molecules, which
can then enter the Krebs Acetyl CoA
cycle to generate ATP Participates in
many biological
reactions in CPF
22 metabolism.
 LIPID METABOLISM
FATTY ACIDS EXCESS GLUCOSE NEEDED BY THE BODY (LIPOGENESIS)

Oxidized (B-oxidation)

1 carbon EXCESS
1 carbon
Acetyl CoA 1 carbon
Acetyl CoA
Acetyl CoA
enters
enters
KREB’S
CYCLE

produce produce

ATP KETONE
BODIES
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 Lipid Metabolism
When glucose is limited, ketone bodies
can be oxidized and used for fuel

Excess acetyl CoA generated from

excess glucose or carbohydrate ingestion
can be used for fatty acid synthesis or
lipogenesis.

Acetyl CoA is used to create lipids,

triglycerides, steroid hormones,
cholesterol, and bile salts.

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Lipid Metabolism
Lipolysis
• Is the process by which fats are
broken down in our bodies through
enzymes and water or hydrolysis.
• Occurs in adipose tissue which are
the fatty tissues that cushion and
line our bodies and organs
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 Lipid Metabolism
Ketogenesis:
• If excessive acetyl CoA is created from
the oxidation if fatty acids and the
Krebs cycle is overloaded and cannot
handle it, the acetyl CoA is diverted to
create ketone bodies.
• Ketone bodies serves as fuel source if
glucose are too low.
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Lipid Metabolism
Ketone Body Oxidation:
• Organs that have classically been
thought to be dependent solely on
glucose, such as the brain, can actually
use ketones as an alternative energy
source.
• Ketones oxidize to produce energy for
the brain. beta (β)-hydroxybutyrate is
oxidized to acetoacetate and NADH is
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released.
Lipid Metabolism
An CoA molecule is added to acetoacetate,
forming acetoacetyl CoA

The carbon within the acetoacetyl CoA that is not

bonded to the CoA then detaches, splitting the
molecule in two.

This carbon then attaches to another free HS-

CoA, resulting in two acetyl CoA molecules.
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Lipid Metabolism

These two acetyl CoA

molecules are then
processed through
the Krebs cycle to
generate energy.
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Lipid Metabolism
Lipogenesis
• The process where your body
uses to convert carbohydrates
into fatty acids, which are the
building blocks of fats.
• Fats are an efficient way for
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your body to store energy.
Protein Metabolism
Digestion of proteins begins in the
stomach
HCl and pepsin begin the process of
breaking down proteins into their
constituent amino acids
As the chyme enters the small
intestine, it mixes with bicarbonate
and digestive enzymes
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Protein Metabolism
The bicarbonate neutralizes the acidic
HCl, and the digestive enzymes break
down the proteins into smaller
peptides and amino acids

Digestive hormones secretin and CCK are

released from the small intestine to aid in
digestive processes, and digestive
proenzymes are released from the
pancreas (trypsinogen and
chymotrypsinogen)
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Protein Metabolism
Enterokinase, an enzyme
located in the wall of the
small intestine, activates
trypsin, which in turn
activates chymotrypsin.

These enzymes liberate

the individual amino acids
that are then transported
via sodium-amino acids
transporters across the
intestinal wall into the
33 cell.
Protein Metabolism
The amino acids are then transported into the
bloodstream for dispersal to the liver and cells
throughout the body to be used to create new proteins.

Excess amino acids are processed and stored as

glucose or ketones.

Nitrogen waste is liberated in this process is converted

to urea in the urea acid cycle and eliminated in the
urine.

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Protein Metabolism

In starvation,
amino acids can
be used as an
energy source
and processed
through the
Krebs cycle.
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 Metabolic States
of the Body

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The Three Metabolic States
Absorptive State

Post absorptive State

Starvation
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Absorptive State
Also called fed state

Occurs after a meal when body is digesting

the food and absorbing nutrients

Digestion begins the moment you put food into

the mouth

The food is broken down into its constituent

parts to be absorbed through the intestine
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Post absorptive State
Maintenance of steady-state
concentrations of plasma amino acids
depends on release of amino acids
from tissue protein.

Dietary amino acids enter the plasma,

replenish the tissues and are
metabolized during fasting.
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 Starvation
After 3 to 5 days of fasting,
increasing reliance on fatty acids
and ketone bodies for fuel enables
the body to maintain blood glucose
at 60-50 mg/dL (normal 70 – 100
md/dL) and to spare muscle protein
for prolonged periods without food.
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Energy and Heat Balance
Some energy from the food that is
ingested is used to maintain the
core temperature of the body

Most of the energy derived from

the food is released as heat.

The core temperature is kept

around 36.5-37.5 °C (97.7–99.5
°F).
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Energy and Heat Balance
Regulated by the hypothalamus in the brain, which
senses changes in the core temperature and
operates like a thermostat to increase sweating or
shivering, or inducing other mechanisms to return
the temperature to its normal range.

The body can also gain or lose heat through

mechanisms of heat exchange.

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Energy and Heat Balance
Conduction transfers heat from one object to
another through physical contact.

Convection transfers heat to air or water.

Radiation transfers heat via infrared radiation.

Evaporation transfers heat as water changes

state from a liquid to a gas.
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Nutrition and Diet
Nutrition and diet affect your metabolism.

More energy is required to break down

fats and proteins than carbohydrates

On average, a person requires 1500 to

2000 calories for normal daily activity,
routine exercise will increase that amount.

If you ingest more than 1500 to 2000

calories the remainder is stored for later
44 use.
Nutrition and Diet
Conversely, if you ingest less than that,
the energy stores in your body will be
depleted.

Eating too much or too little can result

in serious medical conditions, including
cardiovascular disease, cancer, and
diabetes.
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Nutrition and Diet
Vitamins and minerals are essential
parts of the diet. They are needed for
the proper function of metabolic
pathways in the body.

Vitamins are not stored in the body,

they must be obtained from the diet or
synthesized from precursors available
in the diet.
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Nutrition and Diet
Minerals are also
obtained from the diet,
but they are also
stored, primarily in
skeletal tissues.
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 Fat Soluble Vitamins

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 Water Soluble Vitamins

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Minerals

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References

✘ Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology 5th

Edition by Seeley, Stephens, and Tate.
THANK
S!
Any questions?

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