A W P

CHAPTER NO : 3
Antenna parameters and definitions
DHD
Antenna
• An antenna is a region of transition between a transmission line and
space.

• Antennas radiate/couple/concentrate/direct electromagnetic (EM)

energy in the desired direction.

• A radio antenna may be defined as the structure associated with the

region of transition between a guided wave & a free space wave, or
vice versa.
Isotropic Radiator

• Isotropic is an adjective having a physical property which has the

same value when measured in different directions.

• It is hypothetic situation practically not possible.

CONTENTS
Radiation Pattern

Directivity and Directive Gain

Aperture

Miscellaneous
Radiation
Pattern
Radiation Pattern
• It is a 3D plot which can not completely characterize on a paper

• Radiation pattern of antenna is graphical representation of an

antenna as a function of direction.

• If radiation from the antenna is expressed in term of field strength(E

in volt/meter), the radiation pattern is called “Field strength pattern”.
• If radiation from the antenna is expressed in term of power per unit
solid angel, the radiation pattern is called “Power pattern”.
Field strength pattern

• Normalized or relative field pattern: It is obtained by dividing a field

component by its maximum value.

E ( ,  )
E ( ,  ) n  (dimensionless)
E ( ,  ) max
 Power pattern

• Normalized power pattern: It is ratio of Poynting vector (power per

unit area) S(θ, φ) to its maximum value.

S ( ,  ) (dimensionless)
Pn ( ,  ) n 
S ( ,  ) max

where, S ( ,  )  [ E2 ( ,  )  E2 ( ,  )] / Z 0 (W/sq. m)

In dB, dB  10 log10 Pn ( ,  )
The maximum values of normalized field or power patterns are unity.
3D Radiation Pattern
Cartesian Radiation Pattern
RADIATION PATTERN

Beam Area
RADIATION INTENSITY

Beam width

HPBW

BEAM EFFICIENCY

FNBW
Beam Area (or Beam Solid Angle) ΩA
The beam area or beam solid angle (ΩA) of an antenna
is given by the integral of the normalized power pattern
over a sphere (4π sr).

  2  
A    Pn ( ,  ) sin dd
 0 0

also
A     P ( ,  )d
n (sr)
4

where d  sin dd (sr)

Also,  A   HP HP (sr)

 HP , HP : HPBWs in two principal planes, neglecting minor lobes
BWθ or θHP : Elevation beamwidth

BWφ or φHP : Azimuth beamwidth

RADIATION PATTERN
Pattern parameters
• Main beam or main lobe: It is the lobe containing the
maximum radiation.
• Minor lobes: They are all the lobes except the major lobes.
They are formed of side & back lobes.
i. Side lobe: It is the lobe that is in the hemisphere in the
direction of the main lobe.
ii. Back lobe: It is the lobe in the opposite (back) hemisphere
of the main lobe.
• Nulls: Places between lobes where the field goes to zero.
• Half Power Beamwidth (HPBW) or -3 dB beamwidth : It is the
angular beamwidth at the half-power level or at the level
where field drops to 70.7 %.
• Beamwidth between first nulls (FNBW or BWFN): It is the
angular beamwidth between the first nulls on both the sides
of the main lobe.
RADIATION PATTERN
RADIATION PATTERN
Beamwidth
• Half the beamwidth between first nulls is approximately equal to the
half power beamwidth (HPBW). So,
FNBW
 HPBW
2
• Hence, product of FNBW/2 in the two principal planes of antenna
pattern is the beam area. Thus,
 FNBW   FNBW 
A     
 2   2 
Bandwidth
• According to the standard definition, “A band of frequencies in a
wavelength, specified for the particular communication, is known as
bandwidth.”
• The signal when transmitted or received, is done over a range of
frequencies. This particular range of frequencies are allotted to a
particular signal, so that other signals may not interfere in its
transmission.
• Bandwidth is the band of frequencies between the higher and lower
frequencies over which a signal is transmitted.
• The bandwidth once allotted, cannot be used by others.
• The whole spectrum is divided into bandwidths to allot to different
transmitters.
Bandwidth
Radiation Intensity (U)
It is the power radiated from an antenna per unit solid
angle.
P
U ( ,  )  (W/sr or W/sq.deg)
4

It is related to normalized power pattern as

U ( ,  ) S ( ,  )
Pn ( ,  )   (dimensionless)
U ( ,  ) max S ( ,  ) max

It is independent of the distance from the antenna.

Beam Efficiency
“The beam efficiency states the ratio of the beam area of the main
beam to the total beam area radiated.”

• The energy when radiated from an antenna, is projected according to

the antenna’s directivity. The direction in which an antenna radiates
more power has maximum efficiency, while some of the energy is lost
in side lobes. The maximum energy radiated by the beam, with
minimum losses can be termed as beam efficiency.
Beam Efficiency
RADIATION PATTERN

Beam Area
RADIATION INTENSITY According to your need to
According to your need to draw the text box size
draw the text box size

Beam width
According to your need to
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HPBW
According to your need to
draw the text box size
BEAM EFFICIENCY
According to your need to
draw the text box size
FNBW
According to your need to
draw the text box size
Important Slide

• https://www.tutorialspoint.com/antenna_theory/
antenna_theory_radiation_pattern.htm

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=twNVEyjbKRY
Directivity
and
Directive
Gain
ADD YOUR TITLE HERE

Gain

Power Gain
5 Relation between
4 6 Directivity and
Directive Gain
Directive Gain Resolution
3 7
KEYS
Gain Omni-directional
2 8 Antenna

Directivity
1 9 dBD and dBi
Directivity (D)
The directivity of an antenna is the ratio of the maximum power
density P(θ,φ)max to its average value over a sphere as observed in the
far field of an antenna.

P ( ,  ) max
D
P ( ,  ) av

It is a dimensionless ratio ≥ 1.
Directivity (D)
• The average power density over a sphere is given by
  2  
1
P ( ,  ) av 
4   P( ,  ) sin dd
0 0

or 1
P( ,  ) av 
4  P( ,  )d
4
Directivity (D)
So, the directivity
P ( ,  ) max 1
D 
(1 / 4 )  P ( ,  )d (1 / 4 )  [ P ( ,  ) / P ( ,  ) max ]d
4 4

4 4 ( sr )
D  The smaller the beam area ΩA, the larger the directivity D.
 Pn ( ,  )d  A (sr )
4
Directivity (D)
• In decibels, D(dB)  10 log10 D

• The numerical value of D always lies between 1 and ∞.

• The idealized isotropic antenna radiates equally in all the directions,
so its beam area ΩA = 4π sr.
Its directivity is 4 4
D  1
 A 4
Directivity (D)
• This is the lowest possible directivity (D = 1).

• All actual antennas have directivities greater than 1 (D > 1).

Also,
 A   HP HP
as

hence, 4 4 41,253(deg 2 )
D  
 A  HPHP  HP

HP

Gain(G)-----https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wGE4tjATecY
• It is defined as the ratio of maximum radiation intensity in the given
direction to the maximum radiation intensity from reference antenna
in the same direction with same power input.
• It is an actual or realized quantity which is less than the directivity due
to ohmic losses in the antenna.
• Gain is related to directivity with antenna efficiency factor as
G  kD
k or η: antenna efficiency factor (0 ≤ k ≤ 1), dimensionless
If k or η = 1, i.e. for a lossless antenna, GD
In practice, gain is always less than the directivity D.
Gain(G)
Gain can be of following types:
1. Power Gain (Gp)
2. Directive Gain (Gd)
1. Power Gain(Gp)
It is the ratio of radiation intensity in a given direction to the average
total input power.

U ( ,  ) 4U ( ,  )
Gp  
PT PT
4

Total input power PT = Pr + Pl

Pr: Radiated power

Pl : Ohmic losses in antenna

2. Directive Gain(GD)
• It is the ratio of radiation intensity in a particular direction to the
average radiated power.

U ( ,  ) 4U ( ,  )
Gd  
Pr Pr
4
• Gd does not depend upon the power input to the antenna & its ohmic
losses .

Also G p  Gd η: Efficiency factor which lies between 0 to 1

Directivity(D) and Directive Gain(G D)

The maximum value of directive gain is the directivity D of the

antenna.
Resolution
• The resolution of an antenna may be defined as equal to half the
beamwidth between first nulls.
FNBW
Antenna Resolution 
2
• Half the beamwidth between first nulls is approximately equal to the
half power beamwidth (HPBW).
FNBW
 HPBW
2

• Hence, product of FNBW/2 in the two principal planes ofantenna

pattern is the beam area. Thus,  FNBW   FNBW 
A     
 2   2 
Resolution
• The number N of radio transmitters or point sources of radiation
distributed uniformly over the sky which an antenna can resolve is
4
N
A
4
As, D hence, DN
A

• So, ideally, the number point sources of radiation an antenna can

resolve is numerically equal to the directivity of the antenna.
Omnidirectinal Antenna
Omnidirectinal Antenna

• In radio communication, an omnidirectional antenna is a class of

antenna which radiates equal radio power in all directions
perpendicular to an axis
Unit of Gain dB, dBD, dBi
ADD YOUR TITLE HERE

Gain
Add your words here

Power Gain
5 Relation between
Add your words here
4 6 Directivity and
Directive Gain
Directive Gain Resolution
Add your words here 3 7 Add your words here

KEYS
Gain Omni-directional
Add your words here 2 8 Antenna

Directivity
Add your words here 1 9 dBD and dBi
Add your words here
Aperture
Area or Aperture

Effective Aperture

Scattering Aperture

Loss Aperture
Radiation Resistance (Rr)
• The antennas appear to the transmission lines as a resistance Rr is
called the radiation resistance.
• It is a ‘virtual’ resistance that does not exist physically but is a quantity
coupling the antenna to distant regions of space via a ‘virtual’
transmission line.
• It is the fictitious resistance which when substituted in series with an
antenna will consume the same power as is actually radiated by the
antenna.
Radiation Resistance (Rr)
Radiation Resistance (Rr)
Aperture

scattering Effective

Physical
Effective Area OR Effective Aperture OR
Capture Area

It is defined as the ratio of power received at the antenna load terminal

to the Poynting vector or power density in watts/m2 of the incident
wave.

Ae = W
P
where W = POwer received in watts = Irms2 * RL

P = Poynting vector or power density in watts/m2 of the incident wave.

Scattering Aperture As and Loss Aperture Al
• As is defined as the ratio of power consumed at the antenna radiation
resistance to the Poynting vector or power density in watts/m2 of the
incident wave.

As = (Irms2 * Rr ) / P

• Al is defined as the ratio of power consumed at the antenna loss

resistance to the Poynting vector or power density in watts/m2 of the
incident wave.

As = (Irms2 * Rl ) / P
Physical Aperture(Ap)
• It is related to actual physical size or cross section of the antenna.

• It is defined as the physical cross section perpendicular to the

direction of propagation of incident electromagnetic wave with
antenna set for maximum response.
Physical Aperture(Ap)

When no loss
condition occurs,
Ap = Ae

For larger cross For small antennas, physical

section antennas, aperture is less than effetive
physical aperture is aperture.
greater than effective
aperture.
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Polarization
Antenna Efficiency

Miscellineous
Front to back ratio
Effective length or
Height

Signal to noise ratio

Polarization

• It is described in terms of Electric Vector E.

• Polarization or Plane of polarization of a radio wave can be defined by

the direction in which the electric vector E is aligned during the
passage of atleast one full cycle.
Polarization
Types of polarizarion
Linear Polarization
vertical, horizontal, slanting
Linear

Polarization
Elliptical

Ellipltical

Circular Circular
CW, ACW
Types of polarization
Linear Polarization
• Linear polarization or plane polarization of electromagnetic radiation
is a confinement of the electric field vector or magnetic field vector to
a given plane along the direction of propagation.
Circular Polarization

• Circular polarization of an electromagnetic wave is a polarization state

in which, at each point, the electromagnetic field of the wave has a
constant magnitude but its direction rotates at a constant rate in a
plane perpendicular to the direction of the wave.
• It may be clockwise or anticlockwise according to construction of
antenna
Elliptical Polarization
• Elliptical polarization is the polarization of electromagnetic radiation
such that the tip of the electric field vector describes an ellipse in any
fixed plane intersecting, and normal to, the direction of propagation.
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Polarization

Antenna Efficiency

Miscellineous
Front to back ratio

Effective length
Signal to noise ratio
or Height
Effective Height (he) or Effective Length(le)

• Effective height can be defined in terms of induced voltage V

and incident field E.
• Voltage V induced in a receiving antenna is the product of its
effective height he (meters) & the incident field E (V/m) of the
same polarization.
V  he E

• So, effective height may be defined as the ratio of the

induced voltage to the incident field.
Induced voltage
Effective height 
Incident Electric field strength
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Polarization

Antenna
Efficiency
Miscellineous
Front to back ratio
Effective length or
Height

Signal to noise ratio

Antenna efficiency (η)
• It is the ratio of the total power radiated by the antenna to the total
power fed to the antenna.
Pr

PT

Total input power PT = Pr + Pl

Pr: Total radiated power
Pl : Power losses in antenna
• Antenna efficiency can have values from 0 to 1 or from 0% to 100%.
Powers can be expressed in terms of rms currents. So,
2
I rms Rr Rr
 2 
I rms RT RT

Rr Rr
or   (dimensionless)
RT Rr  Rl

Rr: Radiation resistance, Ω

RT: Antenna total resistance (RT = Rr + Rl), Ω
Rl: Antenna loss resistance, Ω
Hence, summarizing for efficiency,
G G p Pr Rr Rr
     (dimensionless)
D Gd PT RT Rr  Rl
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Polarization

Antenna Efficiency

Front to Miscellineous
back ratio Effective length or
Height

Signal to noise ratio

Front-to-back ratio (FBR)
• It is the ratio of power radiated in the front (desired) direction
through the main lobe to the power radiated in the back (opposite)
direction through the back lobes.

Power radiated in desired direction

FBR 
Power radiated in opposite direction
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Polarization

Antenna Efficiency

Miscellineous
Front to back ratio
Effective length or
Height

Signal to
noise ratio
Single-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
It is a measure of detection capability of a system for a
signal.
Let a network be given an input electrical signal
possessing certain characteristics.
If this signal emerges out of the network (at output
port) with some changes in these characteristics (like
variation in magnitude & phase), it is presumed that
these variations can be due to addition or subtraction
of an unwanted signal (called ‘noise’), introduced by
the network itself.
The ratio of the signal ‘S’, fed to the network, and the
noise ‘N’ is termed as single-to-noise ratio (SNR).
 S
SNR 
N

If the input signal is already mixed with some noise

(i.e. = Si + Ni), the output obtained is further modified
by the network (i.e. output = So + No).

So, a new parameter called Noise Figure F can be

defined as
Si
Ni
F
So
No
Towards completion of chapter

Antenna Tempurature

Friss Formula

Antenna Field Zone

Antenna Temperature (TA)
The noise temperature TA of a lossless antenna is equal
to the sky temperature Ts and not the physical
temperature of antenna.
For a radio-telescope antenna, the noise power per unit
bandwidth is given by

p  kTA (W/Hz)

TA is also the temperature of the antenna’s radiation

resistance, determined by the sky temperature at which
the antenna beam is directed.
Multiplying above equation by bandwidth B, we obtain
total power available as
 P  kTA B (W)

Received noise power per unit bandwidth is also

expressed in terms of flux density S as
p kTA
S  (W m-2 Hz-1)
Ae Ae

SAe
or TA  (K)
k
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Antenna Tempurature

Friss Formula

Antenna Field Zone

The Radio Communication Link
(Friis Transmission formula)
This formula gives the power received over a radio
communication link.

Assuming transmitting antenna as isotropic, the power

per unit area available at receiving antenna is
Pt
Sr 
4r 2
If Tx antenna has gain Gt the power per unit area available at
receiving antenna will be increased in proportion as given by
Pt Gt
Sr 
4r 2
The power collected by lossless, matched receiving
antenna of effective aperture Aer is
Pt Gt Aer
Pr  S r Aer 
4r 2
4Aet
As, Gt  using in above relation gives,
2

Pr Aer Aet
 2 2 (dimensionless)
Pt r 
Aer Aet
or Pr  Pt 2 2 (Watts)
r 
ADD YOUR TITLE HERE

Antenna Tempurature

Friss Formula

Antenna Field Zone

Range of region
• The near field is the region within a radius r ≪ λ
• The far-field is the region for which r ≫ 2 λ
• The transition zone is the region between r = λ and r = 2 λ .
C U T E
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