Qualitative Research

Part II

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 **Characteristics
• is rich and holistic;
• provides understanding of a sustained process;
• focuses on lived experience, placed in its
context;
• honors participants’ local meanings;
• can help explain, illuminate, or reinterpret
quantitative data;
• interprets participant viewpoints and stories;

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 Cont…

• Qualitative research and data analysis is not

designed to generate universal laws causally
linking together decontextualized
independent variables.
• However, most qualitative studies are rather
focused on generating explanations of
contextualized activity

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 Significance
• Significant contribution
– significant research serves to bring clarity to
confusion, make visible what is hidden or
inappropriately ignored, and generate a sense of
insight and deepened understanding

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 Significance..
• Theoretical significance:
– Theoretically significant research extends, builds,
or critiques disciplinary knowledge, helping to
explain social life in unique ways.
– At its most basic level, theoretical significance
may come in the form of applying an established
theory in a new context
– Involves conceptual development

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 significance
– Conceptual development involves building theory
beyond the existing literature and offers new and
unique understandings.
– Conceptual development is more difficult than
simply applying existing theory to a new setting

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 Significance
• heuristic significance
– is the quality of research that prompts curiosity in
others, moving them to act, perform additional
investigations, or examine how the concept might
play out in a different context or group.
– Involves specifically discussing new directions or
questions for research, suggesting what we still do
not know and how researchers might attend to
such issues in subsequent studies

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 Significance
• practical significance
– research may also offer practically significant
research contributions through helpful and useful
insight in the day-to-day life of key stakeholders
– problem-based contextual approach research is
specifically designed to result in findings of
practical significance

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 Significance
• catalytic validity
– specifically refers to research that provides a
political consciousness that catalyzes/moves
cultural members to act.

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 Significance
• methodological significance
– is achieved when methodology is approached in a
new, creative, or insightful way
– provides insight in terms of skills associated with
collecting, managing, and analyzing data, and,
given the rich texture of the qualitative landscape,
this is an area ripe for expansion.

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 Con…

• qualitative research can work with inductive

reasoning
• However, qualitative approaches tend to be
contextual, inductive, use emic approaches to
understand local meanings and rules for
behavior

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 Cont…

• Help establish theoretical models after

examining data, and see how emergent
findings extend or complicate existing
theories, look for potential meanings

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 Con…

• Naturalistic inquiry :analyze social action in

uncontrived field settings in which the
predetermined theories are not imposed or
the setting not manipulated
• value-laden

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 Types
• Grounded theory
– refers to a systematic inductive analysis of data
that is made from the ground up.
• begins with collecting data, engaging in open
line-by-line analysis, creating larger themes
from the data, and linking them together in a
larger story.

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 Con…

• Unlike quantitative approach that begins with

pre-existing theories and concepts and
applying these theories to the data (an etic
approach),

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 Con…

• A theoretical rationale may be achieved by

answering questions such as:
– How will this study build upon existing
knowledge?
– How does it fill a gap?
– How might it bridge various concepts in a useful
way?

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 Cont…

• rationale based on need and added value

rather than on lack is much more persuasive.
• review the limitations of past research in a fair
manner, without undue harsh criticism.

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 Cont…

• Research questions/foci
– keep in mind that research questions and foci
statements should guide, but not dictate, your
research path. They will continue to morph
throughout the data-gathering, analysis, and
writing processes.

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 Collection of qualitative data
• Observations, interviews, FGD,
questionnaires, phone calls, personal and
official documents,
• photographs, recordings, drawings, journals,
email messages and responses,
• and informal conversations are all sources of
qualitative data.

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 Cont…

• observation is for understanding the natural

environment as lived by participants, without
altering or manipulating it.
• Participant Observation
– the observer becomes a part of and a participant
in the situation being observed - observing and
collecting data on the activities, people, and
physical aspects of the setting.

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 Cont…

• Nonparticipant Observation
– the observer is not directly involved in the
situation being observed-
– Only observes and records behaviors without
interacting or participating in the life of the setting
under study.

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 Cont…

• Field notes
– are the data that will be analyzed to provide the
description and understanding of the research
setting and participants; they should be as
extensive, clear, and detailed as possible.
– qualitative research materials gathered, recorded,
and compiled (usually on-site) during the course
of a study—are best.

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 Cont…

• Field notes describe, as accurately and as

comprehensively as possible, all relevant aspects
of the situation.
• They contain two basic types of information:
– (1) descriptive information about what the observer
has directly seen or heard on-site through the course
of the study and (2) reflective information that
captures the researcher’s personal reactions to
observations, the researcher’s experiences, and the
researcher’s thoughts during the observation sessions.

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 Validity in Qualitative Research

• In qualitative research, validity is the degree to

which qualitative data accurately gauge what
we are trying to measure.
• Validity in qualitative research are through
trustworthiness and understanding.

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 Cont…

• Qualitative researchers can establish the

trustworthiness of their research by
addressing the credibility, transferability,
dependability, and confirmability of their
studies and findings.

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 Cont…

• credibility- take into account all the

complexities in the study and address
problems that are not easily explained
• Transferability- include descriptive, context-
relevant statements so that someone hearing
about or reading a report of the study can
identify with the setting

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 Cont…

• study is context-bound and do not seek to

draw conclusions that can be generalized to
larger groups of people.
• Dependability-address the stability of the data
collected
• Confirmability- the neutrality and objectivity
of the data

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 Con…

• the trustworthiness of qualitative research,

and the understanding of it can be established
trough descriptive validity, interpretive
validity, theoretical validity, generalizability,
and evaluative validity(Maxwell’s)

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 Cont…

• Descriptive validity refers to the factual

accuracy of the account
• Interpretive validity refers to the meaning
attributed to the behaviors or words of the
participants (i.e., the participants’ perspective)
— the researcher must interpret the
participants’ words or actions accurately.

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 Cont…

• Theoretical validity refers to how well the

research report relates the phenomenon
under study to a broader theory.
• Evaluative validity has to do with whether the
researcher was objective enough to report the
data in an unbiased way, without making
judgments and evaluations of the data

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 Qualitative research designs
• Narrative research is the study of how
different humans experience the world around
them, and it involves a methodology that
allows people to tell the stories of their
“storied lives.”
• Narrative researchers collect data about
people’s lives and, with the participants,
collaboratively construct a

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 Cont…

narrative (i.e., written account) about the

experiences and the meanings they attribute to
the experiences.

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 Cont…

• Narrative Analysis and the Analysis of

Narrative
– In narrative analysis, the researcher collects
descriptions of events through interviews and
observations and synthesizes them into narratives
or stories, similar to the process of restoring.
– the story is the outcome of the research,

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 Cont…

• Analysis of narrative is a process in which the

researcher collects stories as data and analyzes
common themes to produce a description that
applies to all the stories captured in the
narratives.
• the researcher develops a statement of themes
as general knowledge about a collection of
stories, but in so doing, underemphasizes the
unique aspects of each story.
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 Characteristics of narrative
• Narrative research can be characterized by:
– A focus on the experiences of individuals
– A concern with the chronology of individuals’
experiences
– focus on the construction of life stories based on
data collected through interviews
– Restoring as a technique for constructing the
narrative account

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 Cont…

– Inclusion of context and place in the story

– A collaborative approach that involves the
researcher and the participants in the negotiation
of the final text
– A narrative constructed around the question

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• restorying is “the process in which the
researcher gathers stories, analyzes them for
key elements of the story (e.g., time, place,
plot, and scene), and then rewrites the story
to place it in a chronological sequence.

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 steps in planning and conducting
narrative research
• Identify the purpose of the research study,
and identify a phenomenon to explore.
• Develop initial narrative research questions.
• Consider the researcher’s role
– (e.g., entry to the research site, reciprocity, and
ethics) and obtain necessary permissions

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 Cont…

• Develop data collection methods, paying

particular attention to interviewing, and
collect the data.
• Collaborate with the research participant to
construct the narrative and to validate the
accuracy of the story
• Write the narrative account.

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 Ethnographic research
• Ethnographic research (also called
ethnography ) is the study of the cultural
patterns and perspectives of participants in
their natural settings.
• Involves long-term study of particular
phenomena to situate understandings about
those phenomena into a meaningful context

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 Cont…

• involves Intensive participant observation to

discern patterns and regularities of human
behavior in social activity
• The goal of ethnographic research is to
describe, analyze, and interpret the culture of
a group, overtime, in terms of the group’s
shared beliefs, behaviors, and language

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 characteristics
• It is carried out in a natural setting, not a
laboratory.
• It involves intimate, face-to-face interaction
with participants.

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 Cont…

• Types
– A critical ethnography is a highly politicized form
of ethnography written by a researcher to
advocate against inequalities and domination of
particular groups that exist in society (including
schools).
– The researcher’s intent is to advocate “for the
emancipation of groups marginalized in our
society.

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 Cont…

• Realist ethnographies are most commonly used

by cultural and educational anthropologists who
study the culture of schools.
• A realist ethnography is written with an objective
style and uses common categories for cultural
description, analysis, and interpretation; such
categories include “family life, work life, social
networks, and status systems.”

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 Cont…

• ethnographic case study focuses on describing

the activities of a specific group and the
shared patterns of behavior the group
develops over time.

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 Techniques/ethnography

• Triangulation
– is the use of multiple methods, data collection
strategies, and data sources to get a more
complete picture of the topic under study and to
crosscheck information.
– Triangulation is a primary way that qualitative
researchers ensure the trustworthiness (i.e.,
validity) of their data.

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 Cont…

• Participant observation is undertaken with at

least two purposes in mind, to observe the
activities, people, and physical aspects of a
situation and to engage in activities that are
appropriate to a given

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 Cont..

• case study research is a qualitative research

approach in which researchers focus on a unit
of study known as a bounded system
• case is “a thing, a single entity, a unit around
which there are boundaries.

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 Characteristics
• Case studies can be described as particularistic,
descriptive , and heuristic .
 particularistic means that case study is focused
on a particular phenomenon, such as a situation
or event.
• Descriptive shows the end result of the case
study, the narrative, includes “thick description”
of the phenomenon under study—inclusion of
many variables and analyses of their interactions.
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 Cont…

• The term heuristic refers to the fact that case

studies “illuminate the reader’s understanding
of the phenomenon under study,” beyond the
reader’s original knowledge.

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 Cont…

• For the case study:

– Determine the research questions.
– Define the case under study.
– Determine the role of theory development in case
selection.
– Determine the theoretical and conceptual
framework of the case study

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 Cont…

• Determine whether a single case study, a

multiple case study, or a collective case study
is appropriate.
• Qualitative sampling is the process of selecting
a small number of individuals for a study in
such a way that the individuals chosen will be
able to help the researcher understand the
phenomenon under investigation- Purposive
sampling
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 Sampling in qualitative research
 Qualitative sampling
– Small number of individuals, good key informants,
adding to the researcher’s understanding of the
phenomena are selected
– good key informants are:
– reflective, thoughtful, communicative, comfortable
to the researcher’s presence
– Less repetitive
– In-depth data collection, context sensitive

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 Purposive sampling

 Almost always used in Qualitative sampling

 Data saturation for determining sample size

Examples of qualitative sampling:

– Intensity sampling-extreme cases observed
– Homogeneous sampling- with similar behavior
– Criterion- based on researcher’s criteria
– Snow ball- one/few samples leading to others

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 Cont…

• selecting the unit of analysis; the educational

researcher’s unit of analysis may be a child, a
classroom of children, or an entire school
district, depending on the research question.

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 Cont…

• undertake data collection and data analysis

activities together

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 Qualitative data analysis
• Data analysis in qualitative research is not left
until all data are collected, as is the case with
quantitative research.
• The qualitative researcher begins data analysis
from the initial interaction with participants
and continues that interaction and analysis
throughout the entire study.

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 Cont..

• Qualitative data analysis is based on induction:

• The researcher starts with a large set of data
representing many things and seeks to narrow
them progressively into small and important
groups of key data. No predefined variables
help to focus analysis, as in quantitative
research. The qualitative researcher constructs
meaning by identifying patterns and themes
that emerge during the data analysis.
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 Cont…

• after data are collected, the qualitative

researcher undertakes a multistage process of
organizing, categorizing, synthesizing,
analyzing, and writing about the data.
• Follow three iterative, or repeating, steps:
reading/memoing, describing what is going on
in the setting, and classifying research data.

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 Cont…

• The process focuses on

– (1) becoming familiar with the data and identifying
potential themes(i.e., reading/ memoing);
– (2) examining the data in depth to provide
detailed descriptions of the setting, participants,
and activity (i.e., describing); and
– (3) categorizing and coding pieces of data and
grouping them into themes (i.e., classifying).

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 Cont…

• strategies that are used to analyze qualitative

data: identifying themes; coding surveys,
interviews, and questionnaires; asking key
questions; doing an organizational review;
concept mapping, analyzing antecedents and
consequences; displaying findings; and stating
what is missing. Each is important in
identifying research categories and patterns.

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 Qualitative data analysis
• Coding is the active process of identifying data
as belonging to, or representing, some type of
phenomenon. This phenomenon may be a
concept, belief, action, theme, cultural
practice, or relationship
• Codes are words or short phrases that capture
a “summative, salient, essence-capturing,
and/or evocative attribute for … language-
based or visual data
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 Cont…

• open coding” and “initial coding” “first cycle

coding” - trying to open up meaning in the
data
• Primary-cycle coding begins with an
examination of the data and assigning words
or phrases that capture their essence.
– Consider local jargon, slang, and vocabulary of a
given community

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 Cont…

• Throughout the coding process, use the

constant comparative method to compare the
data applicable to each code, and modify code
definitions to fit new data (or else break them
off and create a new code).

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 Cont…

• Lumping versus fracturing

– is a matter of degree and personal style. Those
who first fracture the data into small pieces, each
with its own code, usually connect these bits into
larger categories during later coding cycles. In
contrast, those who lump first usually make finer
distinctions later.

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 Cont…

• Secondary-cycle coding/ second-level analytic

and axial/hierarchical coding
– examining the codes already identified in primary
cycles critically and beginning to organize,
synthesize, and categorize them into interpretive
concepts
– serve to explain, theorize, and synthesize data

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 Cont…

– includes interpretation and identifying patterns,

rules, or cause–effect progressions.
• Axial coding is the process of reassembling
data that were fractured during open coding
– relate to hierarchical codes,
– includes systematically grouping together various
codes under a hierarchical “umbrella” category
that makes conceptual sense

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 Cont…

– Involves moving from emergent and descriptive

coding to more focused and analytic coding.
– Leads to better understanding of how data
analysis significantly attends to salient research
foci/questions.

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 Cont…

• Adequacy of data: theoretical sampling and

theoretical saturation
– theoretical sampling :comes from grounded
theory
– involves gathering data in order to inform an
emergent theory in the data.
– theoretical saturation: Data gathered considered
enough when new pieces add little, if any, new
value to the emergent analysis

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 Cont…

• Data saturation : data collection is sufficient

when:
– (a) no new or relevant data seem to emerge
regarding a category;
– (b) the category is well developed in terms of its
properties and dimensions demonstrating
variation; and
– (c) the relationships among categories are well
established and validated.

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 Cont…

• Adequacy of data in light of research

questions
– Another good question to ask is this: “Does the
emerging analysis attend to my research foci in an
interesting and significant way?” If not, this may
suggest the need for more data.

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 Ethical considerations
• Ethical research practice: Practicing ethics in
qualitative research requires consideration of:
– (a) procedural rules and procedures;
– (b) the specific ethics of the context we are
studying; and
– (c) the ethics of working – sometimes quite closely
and intimately – with research participants.

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 Cont…

• Procedural ethics
– Procedural ethics refer to ethical actions that are
prescribed by certain organization as being
universal or necessary. Some requirements
• do no harm;
• avoid deception;
• get informed consent;
• ensure privacy and confidentiality.

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 Cont…

• Situational ethics refers to ethical issues that

arise in specific contexts or sample
populations
• Relational ethics, an ethics of care that
recognizes and values mutual respect, dignity,
and connectedness between researcher and
researched, and between researchers and the
communities in which they live and work

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Contrasts b/n quantitative & qualitative R.
Quantitative research Qualitative research
Numbers Words
Point of view of Points of view of
researcher participants
Researcher distant Researcher close
Theory testing Theory emergent
Static Process
Structured Unstructured
Generalization Contextual
understanding

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Contrasts… continued
Quantitative Qualitative
Hard, reliable data Rich, deep data
Macro Micro
Behaviour Meaning
Artificial setting Natural setting

Contrasts
76
Characteristics of quantitative &
qualitative research
Quant steps Qual

•Description, Identifying •Exploratory,

explanation- research understanding-
oriented problem oriented
•Major role, Reviewing the •minor role
Justification for literature Justification for
the research the research
problem problem,

Contrasts here
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Characteristics…continued

quan steps qual

•Specific, Selecting •General,
narrow participants/ broad,
•Measurable, sample •Participants’
observable data experiences
•Predetermined Collecting data •Emerging
instruments, protocols,
•Numeric data, •text or image
•Large number data,
of individuals •Small number
of individuals/
sites

Contrast…continued
78
Characteristics…continued

quantitative steps qualitative

•Statistical Analyzing & •Text analysis,
analysis interpreting •Description,
•Description of data analysis,
trends, thematic dev’t
comparisons of •The larger
groups or meaning of
r/ships among findings
variables,
•A comparison
of results with
predictions &
past studies

Contrast…continued
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Characteristics…continued

Quantitative steps Qualitative

•Standard & Reporting & •Flexible &
fixed Evaluating Emerging,
•Objective & research •Reflexive &
unbiased biased

Source: Gay(2009,pp 15)

Contrast…continued
80
The processes of quantitative research
1. Theory
2. Hypothesis
3. Research design
4. Devise measures of concepts
5. Select research sites
6. Select research subjects/respondents

Quantitative research: Steps

81
7. Administer research instruments/collect
data
8. Process data
9. Analyze data
10. findings/conclusions
11. Write up findings/conclusion
conclusion reflects on theory

Quantitative research: Steps

82
main steps of qualitative research
1. General research questions
2. Selecting relevant sites & subjects
3. Collection of relevant data
4. Interpretation of data
5. Conceptual & theoretical work
5a. Tighter specification of the research
questions

Qualitative research: steps

83
5b. Collection of further data
6. Write up findings

Qualitative research: steps

84