The Basic Structure of the Nervous

System
The Neuron
Dendrites
Cell Body
Axon Hillock
Axon
Nodes of Ranvier
Myelin Sheath
Axon Terminals
Synaptic Vesicles
Synapse
Glial Cells
Myelination
 NEURON
“ THE BASIC ELEMENTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM”
 PARTS OF A NEURON
• A CLUSTER OF FIBERS AT ONE
• DENTRITE END OF A NEURON THAT
RECIEVES MESSAGES FROM
OTHER NEURONS.

• THE PART OF THE NEURON

• AXON THAT CARRIES MESSAGES
DESTINED FOR OTHER
NEURON.

• SMALL BULGES AT THE END

• TERMINAL BUTTONS OF AXON THAT SENDS
MESSAGES TO OTHER
NEURON.

• MYELIN • PROTECTIVE COAT OF FAT

AND PROTEIN THAT WRAPS
AROUND THE AXON.

• GAP BETWEEN TWO

• NODE OF RANVIER
MYELINATED AXONS
SYNAPES-THE SPACE BETWEEN TWO NEURONS
WHERE THE AXON OF A SENDING NEURON
COMMUNICATES WITH THE DENTRITES OF A
RECEIVING NEURON BY USING CHEMICAL
MESSAGES.

NEUROTRANSMITTERS-CHEMICALS THAT
CARRY MESSAGES ACROSS THE SYNAPES TO
DENTRITE AND SOME TIMES CELL BODY OF A
RECEIVER NEURON.
 TYPES OF NEURON

• SENSORY NEURON
• MOTOR NEURON
• ASSOCIATION NEURON
 HOW NEURON FIRE
• LIKE A GUN, NEURONS EITHER FIRE –THAT IS, TRANSMIT AN
ELECTRICAL IMPULSE ALONG THE AXON-OR DON’T FIRE.

• ALL-OR NONE LAW-THE RULE THAT NEURONS ARE EITHER ON OR

OFF.

• RESTING STATE-THE STATE IN WHICH THERE IS A NEGATIVE

ELECTRICAL CHARGE OF ABOUT 270 MILLIVOLTS WITHIN A NEURON.

• ACTION POTENTIAL-AN ELECTRIC NERVE IMPULSES THAT TRAVELS

THROUGH A NEURON WHEN IT IS SET OFF A TRIGGER CHANGING THE
NEURON’S CHARGE FROM NEGATIVE TO POSITIVE.
 Divisions of the Nervous
System
• Central nervous system (CNS)
– Brain and spinal cord
– Integration & command center
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
– Paired spinal and cranial nerves carry
messages TO and FROM the CNS
 Peripheral Nervous System
(PNS)
• Two functional divisions
1. Sensory (afferent) division
• Somatic afferent fibers—convey impulses from
skin, skeletal muscles, and joints
• Visceral afferent fibers—convey impulses from
visceral organs
2. Motor (efferent) division
• Transmits impulses from the CNS to effector
organs
 There are 2 divisions of this
Autonomic system
– Sympathetic – fight or flight
– Parasympathetic – rest and digest
 Nervous
Nervous
System
System
CentralNervous
Central NervousSystem
System PeripheralNervous
Nervous
Peripheral
(Processes, interprets &&
(Processes, interprets
System
Stores information;issues
issues System
Stores information; (Transmits informationtoto
Orders to muscles, glands
Orders to muscles, glands (Transmits information
&&organs)
organs) &&from
fromthe
theCNS)
CNS)

SpinalCord
Cord AutonomicNervous
Autonomic Nervous
Spinal SomaticNervous
NervousSystem
System System
Brain (Controlsthe
thebrain
brain Somatic System
Brain (Controls (Controls skeletal muscles)
(Controls skeletal muscles) (Regulatesglands,
(Regulates glands,blood
blood
&peripheral
& peripheralnerves)
nerves) Vessels & internal organs)
Vessels & internal organs)

SympatheticNervous
Sympathetic Nervous Parasympathetic
Parasympathetic
AfferentPathways
Afferent Pathways System
System
(Mobilizesbody
bodyfor
foraction,
action,
NervousSystem
Nervous System
(Mobilizes (Conserves energy,
(Goto
(Go toCNS)
CNS) Energy output; fight-or-
Energy output; fight-or- (Conserves energy,
Flight) Maintains a quiet state)
Maintains a quiet state)
Flight)

EfferentPathways
Efferent Pathways
(FromCNS)
(From CNS)
 Histology of Nervous Tissue
• Two principal cell types
1. Neurons—excitable cells that transmit
electrical signals
 Histology of Nervous Tissue
2. Neuroglia (glial cells)—supporting cells:
• Astrocytes (CNS)
• Microglia (CNS)
• Ependymal cells (CNS)
• Oligodendrocytes (CNS)
• Satellite cells (PNS)
• Schwann cells (PNS)
 Functions of the Nervous
System
1. Sensory input
– Info gathered by sensory receptors
2. Integration
– Interpretation of sensory input
3. Motor output
– Activation of effector organs (muscles and
glands) produces a response
 Divisions of the Nervous
System
• Central nervous system (CNS)
– Brain and spinal cord
– Integration & command center
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
– Paired spinal and cranial nerves carry
messages TO and FROM the CNS
 Peripheral Nervous System
(PNS)
• Two functional divisions
1. Sensory (afferent) division
• Somatic afferent fibers—convey impulses from
skin, skeletal muscles, and joints
• Visceral afferent fibers—convey impulses from
visceral organs
2. Motor (efferent) division
• Transmits impulses from the CNS to effector
organs
Efferent (Motor) Division of PNS
1. Somatic nervous system
– Conscious control of skeletal muscles

(voluntary Division)
 Motor Division of PNS
2. Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
– Visceral motor nerve fibers
– Regulates smooth mm, cardiac mm, and glands
• Stuff you are too busy to think about
– Two functional subdivisions
• Sympathetic
• Parasympathetic

involuntary division
 There are 2 divisions of this
Autonomic system
– Sympathetic – fight or flight
– Parasympathetic – rest and digest
 Central nervous system (CNS) Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Brain and spinal cord Cranial nerves and spinal nerves
Integrative and control centers Communication lines between the
CNS and the rest of the body

Sensory (afferent) division Motor (efferent) division

Somatic and visceral sensory Motor nerve fibers
nerve fibers Conducts impulses from the CNS
Conducts impulses from to effectors (muscles and glands)
receptors to the CNS

Somatic sensory Somatic nervous Autonomic nervous

fiber
Skin system system (ANS)
Somatic motor Visceral motor
(voluntary) (involuntary)
Conducts impulses Conducts impulses
from the CNS to from the CNS to
skeletal muscles cardiac muscles,
Visceral sensory fiber smooth muscles,
Stomach and glands
Skeletal
muscle
Motor fiber of somatic nervous system

Sympathetic division Parasympathetic

Mobilizes body division
systems during activity Conserves energy
Promotes house-
keeping functions
during rest

Sympathetic motor fiber of ANS

Heart
Structure
Function
Sensory (afferent)
division of PNS Parasympathetic motor fiber of ANS Bladder
Motor (efferent)
division of PNS

Figure 11.2
 Histology of Nervous Tissue
• Two principal cell types
1. Neurons—excitable cells that transmit
electrical signals
 Histology of Nervous Tissue
2. Neuroglia (glial cells)—supporting cells:
• Astrocytes (CNS)
• Microglia (CNS)
• Ependymal cells (CNS)
• Oligodendrocytes (CNS)
• Satellite cells (PNS)
• Schwann cells (PNS)
 Astrocytes
• Most abundant, versatile, and highly
branched glial cells
• Cling to neurons, synaptic endings, and
capillaries
• Support and brace neurons
 Astrocytes
• Help determine capillary permeability
• Guide migration of young neurons
• Control the chemical environment
– Participate in information processing in the
brain
 Capillary

Neuron

Astrocyte

(a) Astrocytes are the most abundant

CNS neuroglia.
Figure 11.3a
 Microglia
• Small, egg shaped cells with thorny
processes
• Migrate toward injured neurons
• Phagocytize microorganisms and neuronal
debris
• Closest to immune cell you’ll get in CNS
 Neuron
Microglial
cell

(b) Microglial cells are defensive cells in

the CNS.

Figure 11.3b
Oligodendrocytes
• Branched cells
• Processes wrap CNS nerve fibers, forming
insulating myelin sheaths
 Myelin sheath
Process of
oligodendrocyte

Nerve
fibers

(d) Oligodendrocytes have processes that form

myelin sheaths around CNS nerve fibers.

Figure 11.3d
 PNS
Satellite Cells
• Satellite cells
– Surround neuron cell bodies in the PNS
– Satellite glial cells are glial cells that cover the
surface of nerve cell bodies in sensory
sympathetic and parasympathetic ganglia.
– derived from the neural crest of the embryo
during development
– They are thought to have a similar role to
astrocytes in the central nervous system-
protective, cushioning cells
 PNS- Schwann Cells
• Schwann cells (neurolemmocytes)
– German physiologist Theodor Schwann
– Surround peripheral nerve fibers and form
myelin sheaths
– Similar role like Oligodendrocytes of CNS.

– Function- support and Insulation in PNS.

– supporting nerve regeneration in PNS
– Schwann cell transplantation as a therapy for
spinal cord injury, both in aiding regrowth and
myelination of damaged CNS axons
Satellite
Cell body of neuron
cells
Schwann cells
(forming myelin sheath)
Nerve fiber

(e) Satellite cells and Schwann cells (which

form myelin) surround neurons in the PNS.

Figure 11.3e
 Dendrites
• “Cells little feelers”

• Scattered branches

• Receptive (input) region of a neuron

• Convey electrical signals toward the cell

body as graded potentials
 The Axon
• One axon per cell arising from the axon
hillock
• Long axons (nerve fibers)
• Release neurotransmitters to excite or inhibit
other cells
• Occasional branches ~90 degrees (axon
collaterals)
 Axons: Function

• Conducting region of a neuron

• Generates and transmits nerve impulses

(action potentials) away from the cell body
 Myelin Sheath
• Myelin is a fatty white substance that
surrounds the axon.
• It form an electrically insulating layer.
• The production of the myelin sheath is
called myelination or myelinogenesis.
• It functions to:
– Protect and electrically insulate the axon
– Increase speed of nerve impulse transmission
 Myelin Sheaths in the PNS
• Schwann cells wraps many times around
the axon
– Myelin sheath—concentric layers of Schwann
cell membrane

• Neurilemma—peripheral bulge of
Schwann cell cytoplasm
 Myelin Sheaths in the PNS
• Nodes of Ranvier
– Myelin sheath gaps between adjacent
Schwann cells
– Sites where axon collaterals can emerge
Schwann cell
plasma membrane
Schwann cell 1A Schwann cell
cytoplasm envelopes an axon.
Axon Schwann cell
nucleus

2 The Schwann cell then

rotates around the axon,
wrapping its plasma
membrane loosely around
it in successive layers.

Neurilemma 3 The Schwann cell

Myelin sheath cytoplasm is forced from
between the membranes.
The tight membrane
wrappings surrounding
(a) Myelination of a nerve the axon form the myelin
fiber (axon) sheath.

Figure 11.5a
 Myelin Sheaths in the CNS
• Formed by processes of oligodendrocytes,
not the whole cells

• Nodes of Ranvier are present

• No neurilemma

• Thinnest fibers are unmyelinated

Schizophreni
a
Schizophrenia is a mental disorder
characterized by abnormal social
behavior and failure to understand what
is real.

Common symptoms include false beliefs,

unclear or confused thinking, hearing
voices, reduced social engagement and
emotional expression, and a lack of
motivation.

People with schizophrenia often have

additional mental health problems such
as anxiety disorders, major depressive
illness, or substance use disorder.
Bipolar Disorder
 Comparison of
bipolar disorder and
schizophrenia
Similarity-
1)Both bipolar disorder and schizophrenia appear to result from gene–
environment interaction.
2)combined heritability for bipolar disorder and schizophrenia of approximately
60%, with environmental factors accounting for the remainder

Differences-
1)Schizophrenia is a primary psychotic disorder, and bipolar disorder is a
primary mood disorder but can also involve psychosis.
2)With schizophrenia -- the thought disorder -, is present all the time. a bipolar
person will have, between episodes of mania, periods of time when they are
completely normal.
3)Schizophrenia is thought disorder while bipolar disorder is mood episodes.
4)People with schizophrenia may have trouble understanding information and
using it to make decisions (executive functioning).
5)People with schizophrenia have a greater tendency to be suspicious and
paranoid.
6)Bipolar disorder is a fairly common mental disorder compared with
Schizophrenia
Anxiety
OCD- Phone, Cleanness

Specific phobia- Animal, storm, airplain

Social phobia- eating/drinking in front of others, being center of

attention, stage fear, talking over phone

Panic disorder- sudden feeling of intense anxiety and fear that reach a
peak within 5-10 minutes (panic attack)- shortness of breath or chest
pain

Generalized anxiety disorder- persistence and excessive anxiety for 6

months or more. Associated with fatigue, irritation, restlessness,
sleep disturbance, depression

Posttraumatic stress disorder- people who witness traumatic events,

suffer from more than a month
How is Anxiety Different from Stress?
Stress comes from the pressures we feel, adrenaline is released. its extended
stay causes depression, a rise in BP and other negative effects. One of these
negative effects is anxiety. With anxiety, fear overcomes all emotions
accompanied by worry- chest pains shortness of breath and panic attacks.

Stress we experience in our day-to-day lives is associated with frustration &

nervousness, where anxiety often comes from a place of fear, unease & worry.

Stress is caused by an existing stress-causing factor or stressor. Anxiety is stress

that continues after that stressor is gone.

Unchecked acute stress to become chronic stress which can be anxiety.

The difference of helplessness. When it comes to stress, you can deal with
things and master them but anxiety is helplessness.

stress can have several separate and distinct causes (often happening
concurrently), anxiety often takes one specific (or even future) cause of stress
Depression
Depression
 TREATMENTS FOR DEPRESSION

1) Psychotherapy

2) Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)-

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) under general anesthesia, Small
electric currents are passed through the brain, intentionally
triggering a brief seizure. ---- changes in brain chemistry that can
quickly reverse symptoms of depression
3) Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake
inhibitors-
SSRIs
SSRIs block the reuptake of Serotonin
Treatment-resistant
depression(TRD)
major depressive disorder that do not respond
adequately to appropriate courses of at least two
antidepressants.

Some factors that contribute to inadequate treatment

are: early discontinuation of treatment, insufficient
dosage of medication, patient noncompliance,
misdiagnosis, and concurrent psychiatric disorders.

Cases of treatment-resistant depression may also be

referred to by which medications they are resistant to
Treatment-resistant
depression(TRD)

Drug treatment.
Three basic categories of drug treatment that can be
used when a medication course is found to be
ineffective.

Dose increase- increasing the dosage of an

antidepressant
Switching antidepressants
Adding medication- lithium, triiodothyronine
Behavioral theories of depression
explain the etiology of depression based on the behavioural
sciences, and they form the basis for behavioral therapies
for depression.

1)Behavioral Activation- combination of a stressful event in

an individual's life and their reaction to the event that produces
a depressive episode.

Two main coping mechanisms, rumination and distraction.

Ruminators spend time focusing on the stressful event and
their feelings.
distractors engage in activities that distance them from the
event and their feelings.
Behavioral theories of depression
2) Reinforcement contingencies
depression results from a loss of adequate reward cont

Positive behaviors no longer rewarded

extinct less frequently

lack of responsiveness and arousal

Depression
 Introducing
Environmental
Psychology

The relationships
between people
and their physical
surroundings

@PremTripathi83
 Introduction
ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY studies the
relationship between environments and human behavior
as well as how they affect one another. These
environments include social settings, built environments,
learning environments and informational environments.

Why are some spaces comfortable and others

threatening? How can we enhance our environments to
reduce stress, create more efficiency, and minimize
accidents? These are a few questions that environmental
psychologists work with AS WELL AS DESIGNERS.
 GOAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL
PSYCHOLOGY
• The goal of the field is to solve problems
involving human-environmental
interactions and to create, manage,
protect, and restore environments that
promote proper behavior.

• Researchers diagnose problem situations

and recommend solutions.
 Behaviour Change

Climate change, sustainable

development, and behaviour DO THEY?
change strategies and
interventions dominate
government agendas
(Uzzell & Moser, 2009)
For more, see: Journal of Environmental
Psychology
How The Environment Shapes Human Behavior.
GENE--------DISEASE

Your Experiences Can Change Your Neural Connections.

What kind of changes happen?

1)Neurons- grow new branches, and then can lose old ones.
2)Synapses- synapses can grow larger, and they can grow
smaller.

What causes these changes?

1) neural activity can cause your connections to change.
2) your experiences can change your connectome.
How The Environment Shapes Human Behavior.

Children Who Lived Isolated From Human Contact From

A Very Young Age- Oxana Malaya
How The Environment Shapes Human Behavior.

trouble learning to walk upright and display a complete

lack of interest in human activity around them.
What about stress? And enviornmental factor

Increase connection to nature.

Reduce environmental stressors such as noise,

glare, and poor air quality.

Provide pleasant diversions.

 Social Psychology
Psychology of how we

Think- thoughts and cognition

Feel- Feeling and emotion

Behave – Behavior and action

N

.
 Social Influences on Human Behavior
Human behavior are socially influenced.

Human development and interaction begin at birth and

continue throughout and individual’s lifetime helping to shape
his or her personality and behavioral expressions.

Each phase of a person’s development is essential in their

overall growth from child to adult.

When a child has little or no human interaction they may be

deficient in areas of sociability, language, and physical
development.
 Social Influences on Human Behavior
Separation anxiety seems to be relatively the
same amongst cultures in which similar
behaviors like tantrums and crying occur.

Neglected or abused children on the other hand,

tend to form a detachment and exhibit
indifference to the absence of their attachment
figure.
 Social Influences on Human Behavior
children’s responses to their mother’s absence and return:

secure attachment- welcoming behaviors

avoidant attachment- ignores their mother.

ambivalent attachment- angry or rejecting of their mother

while expressing a desire to be close

disorganized attachment- children who have been mistreated

In Israeli culture, children spend most of their days with

caregivers.
 Social Influences on Human Behavior
Peer relationships are equally important in a child’s
social development.
For children who have experienced abuse or neglect,
friends often have a positive influence in their lives
and provide a sense of support.

these friendships help boost a child’s self-esteem, self-

worth, and self-image.

Children who are accepted by their peers tend to be

more successful in school and in life
 Social Influences on Human Behavior
The way a society views social class or monetary
ranking can single out children from low-income
families causing them to question whether or not they
are “good enough” which may also hinder their social
development.
 Social Influences on Human Behavior
Another example of social influence on human
behavior would be bullying.

If a child enjoys participating in the mistreatment or

abuse of other children while his or her friends are
present, this could be considered a form of social
facilitation.

Social facilitation occurs when the presence of other

people either help or hurt the individual performance
of a person.
 Motivation concepts

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that is driven by an interest

or enjoyment in the task itself, and exists within the individual rather
than relying on any external pressure.

Students are likely to be intrinsically motivated if they:

1) attribute their educational results to internal factors that they can
control (e.g. the amount of effort they put in).
2) believe they can be effective agents in reaching desired goals (i.e.
the results are not determined by luck),
3) are interested in mastering a topic, rather than just rote-learning to
achieve good grades.
 Motivation concepts

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the individual.

Common extrinsic motivations are rewards like money and
grades, and threat of punishment.

Competition is in general extrinsic

A crowd cheering on the individual and trophies are also
extrinsic incentives.

extrinsic rewards can lead to overjustification and a

subsequent reduction in intrinsic motivation.
 Types of Motives
Biological-

Psychological motive that is very important

for survival.

Natural and exist at the time of birth.

Hunger, thirst, pain, sleep

 Types of Motives
Social-

These motives are learned in social group.

expecially in family.

Psychologist have given them various names such

as complex motives and secondary motives

Example- personality make-up, learning

capacity, learning language, shyness, aggression
 Types of Motives
Personal-

These are highly personalized and very much

individualized motives. The most important among
them are:

a.Force of habits:
b.Goals of life:
c.Levels of aspirations:
d.Attitudes and interests:
MEMORY
Example…..FACT AND EVENTS
Supermarket opening time, difference between a dog and a
cat, how to use a phone
Examples- EVENTS, EXPERIENCE
Your sister’s wedding.
your fifth-grade teacher
FACTS, CONCEPTS
The concept of numbers: 2+2
Concept of time, SPELL you name
UNCONSIOUS----SKILL, TASK
how to ride a bicycle, how to talk, and how to tie your shoe, Ice skating
Stages of memory functioning?