Introduction

This course is skewed towards

Computer Science students.

CS students knowledge base is quite

distinct from Information Technology
or Information Systems students.

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 Course Outcome

 Significant exposure to computer networking

concepts and fundamental design principles.

 Coverage of network protocol stacks.

 Details of network control algorithms.

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The Basics

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 Metric Units

Note:
data rates – kbps (103), Mbps(106), Gbps(109) … bits per second
data sizes – KB (210), MB(220), GB(230), … bytes
ms(msec): millisecond..1/1000; µs: microsecond ns: nanosecond
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 Networking: Basic
• Information is generated by a source (e.g., a
telephone handset, computer terminal)

• The information is converted into an electronic

signal. The output is known as a signal.

• The signal is applied to a medium. The medium

carries this signal via electromagnetic (or optical)
waves and delivers it to the receiver.

• The receiver accepts the signal and either exactly or

approximately recovers the original information.
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 Signal Encoding - Data
• Supports all applications that require numeric and
text information, such as accounting.
• Text data: Each letter of the alphabet is
represented by one byte (character). The value
of this byte depends on the coding scheme used
(e.g., ASCII). It is estimated that a page of text
contains 10,000 bits of data.
Compression can reduce actual number of bits
transmitted to about 40% of this.
• Numeric data: Decimal data is transformed into
binary form, and these bits are transmitted.
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 Transmitting a Page of Text
• A letter is represented as 8 bits - a byte
• Characters are typed in 6 ½ x 9 inch space
• 10 characters per inch (65 characters) - 27
lines per page
• 8 * 27 * 65 = 14,040 bits
• given a line speed of 2400 bps
• 14,040 bits I 2400bps or 5.9 secs to transmit

(Eg….A 100 0001, B 100 0010, a 110 0001)

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 Voice
• Supports applications based on sound (telephone,
voice mail, radio, teleconferencing)
• The quality of sound is determined by bandwidth
used. Voice on telephone uses a bandwidth of
about 3kHz.
• In reality, telephone transmission facilities use 4
KHz
Voice of teleconference variety requires 7000 Hz.

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 Encoding Voice
• Analog
- sound is transduced to electricity for
transmission
- telephone, cassette tapes, records
• Digital
- analog signal is sampled
- each sample represented as a number
- number represented as a stream of bits

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 Images

• Supports the communication of pictures,

charts, graphs, facsimile, medical X-rays etc.
• Medical images (e.g., X-rays) require very
high resolution.
• Represented as
bit-maps
instruction to create the image

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 Encoding Images
• Bit maps: an image is divided into rectangular grids.

• Each grid is called a picture element (pixels, or pels).

Each pixel is then coded in bits. The more bits are
used to represent a pixel, the better the quality. The
quality is also enhanced by using more pixels per sq.
in. Super VGA resolution is defined as 1024 x 768
pixels, 8 bits/pixel per image.

• Instructions approach: basically a computer language

is used to give instructions on how to draw figures.
Postscript is such a language.
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 Video

• Supports "moving" pictures, or in reality, a

series of pictures in a specific period of time.
(television, teleconferencing, multimedia)

• Quality of video depends on the quality

(resolution) of each picture (known as a
frame), and the rate at which frames are sent
(called refreshing rate).

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 Video..(2)
• The broadcast TV standard format in North America
(determined by National TV Standards Committee)
is 640 pixels x 525 lines in each frame and a
refresher rate of 30 frames per second.
• The rest of the world uses 640 x 625 frame at a
refresher rate of 25 frames/sec.
• HDTV's requirement is even higher (1280 x 720 x 60)
• Both TV standards listed above are known as "full
motion video". The network bandwidth
requirement is extremely high
• …1920x1080; etc
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 Video ..(3)
• To reduce the bandwidth requirement, these
techniques are used:

- compression: for example, blanks are not sent

- reduced resolution: Instead of full motion
video
standards, Common Intermediate Format (CIF)
360x288x30
- reduced refreshing rate: instead of 30 flsec,
movie level (24) or even cartoon level (8 f/sec) is
used.
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 Video ..(4)
• Video can also be transmitted as an analog signal.
A TV camera captures an image on a plate.
The plate is divided into a number of lines.
• An electron beam sweeps across each line, left
to right and top to bottom. The beam produces an
electrical signal whose intensity is proportional to
the brightness of each spot (equivalent to a pixel)
on the line.
• The standard bandwidth required for analog
color video signaling is 6 MHz.

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A Typical Computing Environment

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 Transmission
Serial & Parallel Transmissions

Parallel transmission means a group of bits is

transmitted at once by means of separate lines.
The lines are bundled in a cable.

Serial transmission uses only one line and the bits

are sent one after the other.

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Parallel & Serial Transmissions

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 Serial Transmission
There are two modes that define the way serial
transmission is done – asynchronous &
synchronous

Asynchronous means that bits are divided into

small groups (usually bytes) and sent
independently. The sender sends at any time
and the receiver has no idea when they will
arrive

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 Synchronous Transmission

Here, much larger bits groupings are sent – a

data frame – each group with its own start
and stop bit. The 1st part of the frame
contains syn characters that alerts the
receiver that a frame is coming, and the tail
end contains end

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 Communication Modes
Simplex Communication
This is where communication goes in one
direction only: sender to receiver. Examples
are TV sets, airport monitors.

Half-Duplex
This is where a device can both send and receive;
however, sender and receiver must alternate.
Eg. 2—way radio, some printers

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 Communication Modes (2)
Full-Duplex: This is where devices can send and
receive simultaneously

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Blank

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Reference Model
Topics

The need for Standards

Agencies
Open Systems
The OSI Model
The TCP/IP Model

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 The Need for Standards
• Companies design and manufacture computers
using their unique styles and architecture

• Different data storage, different languages, different

rate of communication

• For computers from different vendors to

communicate, protocols were needed

• De facto standards… by virtue of widespread use

• Adoption…
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 Agencies
Agencies regulate the numerous standards for the
various fields of communication – a few are:

ANSI – American National Standards Institute. A private

agency that draws membership from users,
manufacturers, and interested companies.
IEC – International Electrotechnical Commission
ITU – International Telecommunication Union
IETF – Internet Engineering Task Force
IEEE – Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers

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 The Open System Interconnect
 Designed to promote interoperability of
computer hardware from different
manufacturers; IBM, AT&T, Xerox, DEC
 The OSI model was developed in 1977 by the
International Organization for Standardization
(ISO)
 ISO is not an abbreviation for the organization;
it is derived from the Greek word isos, that
means equal, and was adopted by the
organization.
The OSI Layers
 Functions
7. Application: provides services such as e-mail
functionality, file transfers
8. Presentation: translates data formats, encrypts and
decrypts data
9. Session: synchronizes communicating users, recovers
errors
10. Transport: determines network, may assemble and
reassemble packets
3. Network: determines routes; prioritize data
11. Data Link: detects and corrects errors, defines frames
1. Physical : transmits data bits over a network
 TCP/IP Model
Facilitates data communication between
machines from different vendors:

• IBM’s System Network Architecture (SNA)

• ISO’s Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)

• ARPA’s TCP/IP… specifically for the Internet

ARPA – Advanced Research Projects Agency
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 Design Goals of the TCP/IP
As defined by the US Dept of Defense:
1. Independent of all hardware & software
manufacturers – not tied to IBM, Novell,
Microsoft, DEC
2. Good built-in error recovery – even when parts of
the network suddenly disappeared (through
enemy attack
3. Handle high error rate and still provide reliable
end-to-end service
4. Allow for the addition of new networks without
any service disruptions
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The Layers

CUCG, Fiapre. C. Nyamekye. 32

The Layers

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The 4 Layers of the TCP/IP

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 The End
Write short notes on:
Hertz
Sound sampling
Nyquist frequency

Due…beginning of next class

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