CHAPTER IV QUALITYOF WATER

Tutor
Prepared By:
Priyanshu Pokhrel Asst. Prof. Shukra Raj Paudel
Rabin lamsal
Rabin Poudel Department Of Civil Engineering IOE,
Rahul Yadav
Rajan Bhushal Tribhuvan University
Rajesh shrestha
 WHAT WILL STUDENTS LEARN AT
THE END OF THIS PRESENTATION !!

PURE WATER, GOOD WATER AND WHOLESOME

WATER
IMPURITIES IN WATER AND THEIR EFFECTS
HARDNESS AND ALKALINITY
LIVING ORGANISMS IN WATER
WATER RELATED DISEASES
EXAMINATION OF WATER AND WATER QUALITY
STANDARDS.
Presentation Outline
Introduction
Impurities In Water And Their Effect
Hardness And Alkalinity
Living Organisms In Water
Water Related Diseases
Examination Of Water
Water Quality Standards For Drinking Purpose
INTRODUCTION
Absolutely pure water is never found in nature. Chemically
pure water is the one which contains two parts of hydrogen
and one part of oxygen. Rain water is absolutely pure at the
instant it is formed but becomes impure when it passes
through atmosphere and flows over the ground. The high
amount of impurities may cause disease in human beings.
These impurities must be removed by treating it before
supplying the water to public. However it is not made
absolutely pure because such water is not suitable for
human beings due to lack of minerals.
 Important requirements of water for
domestic use:
 Colorless and sparkling clear. Must be free form
suspension and must not deposit sediment on standing.
 Good taste, free from odour.
 Free form disease producing bacteria or organisms.
 Free from harmful salt, radioactive substance and
minerals such as iron, manganese.
 Should not lead to scale formation and should be non
corrosive.
 2H2 O2 PURE
WATER

REMOVAL GOOD
IMPURE
OF
WATER WATER
PHYSICAL

IMPURITIES

HARMFU
CHEMICA L POTABLE
LLY SUBSTAN WATER
IMPURE CE
 POTABLE WATER

Potable means safe to drink. It is

referred as drinking water. It is
not pure water and will contain
dissolved impurities that are not
harmful to health. Non potable
water can be made potable by
process such as desalination,
distillation, reverse osmosis and
so on.
 4.1IMPURITIES IN WATER
IMPURITIES IN WATER

CLASSIFICATION OF CLASSIFICATION OF
IMPURITIES ACCORDING IMPURITIES
TO ITS ACCORDING TO ITS
CHARACTERISTICS STATE

Physical Suspended
impurities impurities

Chemical Colloidal
impurities impurities

Bacteriologica Dissolved
l impurities impurities
 Physical impurities

1. Color: Water gets color from discharge of industries like

chemical, textile, paper etc. For e.g.: yellowish color
indicates the presence of chromium and appreciable amount
of organic matter.

2. Odor: Due to some industries components which contain

strong smelling compound water gets odour. Generally
smelling compounds are chlorine, hydrogen sulphide.

3. Taste: Presence of dissolved mineral in water produces

taste. Bitter taste is due to the presence of iron, aluminum,
manganese, sulphate or excess lime. Soapy taste can be due
to the presence of large amount of sodium bicarbonate.
4. Turbidity: Turbidity is caused by suspended and colloidal
matters such as sand, silt, clay etc. Turbidity is cloudiness of
liquid. These particles scatter the incident light
and liquid loses its transparency. It can also be said
as the measure of degree to which matter loses its
transparency. It is also important for a
number of reasons. Turbidity may shield bacteria,
preventing disinfection chemicals from attacking and
destroying the cells.
 Chemical Impurities
1. pH: Water with a lower pH tends to be corrosive, at a higher
pH it tends
to produce scale. Scales are hard deposits that stick
firmly to the inner surface of boiler and are very
difficult to remove.

2. Hardness: It is caused by significant amounts of calcium

or magnesium components. Hard water
consumes more soap.

3. Dissolved solids: The amount of dissolved solid affects the

water for all of its uses. The recommended
maximum limit of dissolved solid is 500ppm.
Problems caused are related to taste &
odour, hardness corrosion and scaling.
4. Organics: They can cause problems in terms of
health effects, treatment and taste, odour &
color of water. Some organics are potential
carcinogens, that is they may
cause cancer.
Bacteriological Impurities
1. Bacteria: They may cause typhoid, fever, dysentery,
cholera. Some bacteria although not harmful may cause
taste & odour problems.
2. Protozoa: They cause diarrhea, stomach cramps, nausea,
dehydration and headaches.
3. Viruses: Viruses that may be carried by water include
hepatitis and polio.
Suspended Impurities
 Dispersion of solid particles that are large enough to
be removed by filtration.
 Lighter particles float whereas heavier particles
settle.
Constituents Effect

Bacteria Causes diseases.

Algae, Protozoa Odour, color and turbidity

Clay & silt. Turbidity

Colloidal impurities

 Finely divided dispersion of particles in water.

 They are so small that these cannot be removed by

ordinary filters and not visible to naked eye.

 They are electrically charged and remain in continuous

motion.

 Most of the color of the water is due to colloidal

impurities.
 Constituents Effects
1. Salts of calcium and magnesium
Dissolved Bicarbonate Hardness and alkalinity
impurities Carbonate Hardness and alkalinity
Sulphate Hardness
 Solution in simple Chloride Hardness
atom or molecular 2. Salts of sodium
compounds. Bicarbonate Softening and alkalinity
Carbonate Softening and alkalinity
Fluoride Dental fluorosis or mottled
enamel
Chloride Taste
3. Gases
Oxygen Corrosiveness
Carbon dioxide Acidity and corrosiveness
Hydrogen sulphate Odor, acidity and
corrosiveness
4. Metals and compounds
Iron oxide Taste, red color, hardness and
corrosion.
Manganese Black and brown color.
Lead Cumulative poisoning
Arsenic Toxicity
Barium Toxic effect on heart and nerves
Cadmium Toxic and illness
Cyanide Fatal
Boron Affects central nervous system
Selenium Highly toxic to animals and fish
Silver Discoloration of skin and eyes
Nitrate Blue baby diseases in infant
5. Organic compounds
Vegetable Produce bacteria
Animal(dead) Pollution of water and disease germs
Comparison of solution suspension and colloid

Solution Suspension Colloid

Appearance Clear, transparent Cloudy and Cloudy but

and homogeneous heterogeneous uniform and
homogeneous
Particle size 0.01-1nm >1000nm 1-1000nm
Effect of light Particles don’t Particles can Particles may or
scatter light. scatter light. may not scatter
light.
Effect of None Particles will None
sedimentation eventually settle
out.
Visibility Particles are not Visible with naked Visible with
visible even under eye. microscope.
ultra microscope.
 4.2 HARDNESS AND ALKALINITY

 HARDNESS
 ALKALINITY
 RELATION BETWEEN HARDNESS AND ALKALINITY
 NUMERICAL ON HARDNESS AND ALKALINITY
4.2.1 HARDNESS

➢Characteristics of water which prevent the formation

of sufficient lather foam with soap.

➢Caused by the presence of bicarbonates, sulphates,

chlorides and nitrates of calcium, magnesium and
strontium.
Effects of hardness
Fig: Corrosion
➢Consumes more soap Source: corrosionpedia
➢modifies color in
the dyeing industry
➢causes corrosion and
incrustation of pipes
➢makes food tasteless
➢forms scales in boilers20
Fig: Scaling

Source:
chemicalprocessing.com
Types of hardness
A)temporary hardness
b)permanent hardness

a)temporary hardness

➢hardness caused by the

presence of bicarbonates of ca, mg, sr.
➢Also called carbonate hardness(ch).
HARDNESS REMOVING METHOD:

BOIL OR
HARDNESS
WATER ADDITION
REMOVED
OF LIME

B)Permanent hardness

SULPHATE, NITRATE, Water with

WATE
CHLORIDES OF Ca, permanent
R
Mg, Sr hardness (NCH)
➢Also called non-carbonate hardness(nch).

➢Can be removed by ion exchange column

method, zeolite, lime soda method.

Zeolite method

Source: ques10.com
 Fig: permanent hardness
removal
source: quora

Source: slideshare.com
DETERMINATION OF
HARDNESS
TOTAL HARDNESS= CH + NCH

➢EXPRESSED IN PPM OR MG/L AS CACO3

HARDNESS = ION CONCENTRATION IN
MG/L *

NOTES: EQUIVALENT WT. OF CACO3= 50;

EQUIVALENT WT. OF CA++ = 20
EQUIVALENT WT. OF MG++=12.2
EQUIVALENT WT. OF SR++=43.8
4.2.2 ALKALINITY
➢CAPACITY TO NEUTRALIZE A STANDARD
SOLUTION OF ACID
➢FOR ALKALINE WATER, PH>7
➢CAUSED DUE TO PRESENCE OF HCO3-, CO3–AND
OH-

TOTAL ALKALINITY :

CARBONATES ALKALINITY + BICARBONATE

ALKALINITY

TOTAL ALKALINITY :

CARBONATES ALKALINITY + HYDROXIDE

ALKALINITY
Fig: ph
chart
DETERMINATION OF
ALKALINITY

Alkalinity expressed in ppm or mg/l as caco3

carbonate alkalinity = co3–concentration /0 .6

bicarbonate alkalinity = HCO3-, concentration / 1.22

hydroxide alkalinity = OH-concentrtaion/ 0.34

4.2.3 RELATION BETWEEN
HARDNESS AND ALKALINITY
I) When TH> alkalinity then
CH = alkalinity and
NCH = TH –CH

ii) when TH ≤ alkalinity then

CH = TH
NCH = 0
4.2.4 NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
THE ANALYSIS OF WATER FROM A WELL SHOWED
THE FOLLOWING RESULTS IN MG/L
CA++= 65 MG++= 51 NA+= 101.5 K+= 21.5 HCO3-=
248
SO4--= 221.8 CL-= 79.5

FIND THE CARBONATE HARDNESS , NON-CARBONATE

HARDNESS AND THE TOTAL HARDNESS.

SOLUTION:

WE HAVE,
EQUIVALENT WT. OF CACO3 = 50

EQUIVALENT WT. OF CA = 20

EQUIVALENT WT. OF MG = 12.2

 TH = 65* 50/20 + 51 * 50 / 12.2 =371.52 MG/L

BICARBONATE ALKALINITY = 248/ 1.22 = 203.28

MG/L

TOTAL ALKALINITY = 203.28 MG/L

TH> ALKALINITY

CH = TOTAL ALKALINITY = 203.28 MG/L

NCH = TH –CH

371.52 –203.28 = 168.24 MG/L

 4.3 LIVING ORGANISM

• Contaminated water may contain various

microorganisms hence should be treated before use
• Mainly responsible to water borne diseases
• They can be either plants or animals
• Some living organisms are microscopic while other are
macroscopic in nature
• Some organisms are harmful to the man while
majority of the microorganisms are beneficial to man
The main types of microorganisms present in water are
as follows
a) Algae
b) Bacteria
c) Virus
d) Worms
 4.3.1 ALGAE

• A unicellular simple photosynthetic aquatic plant

• Microscopic in fresh water but several hundred meter length in
salty water
• Seven type of algae have been found
• Causes turbidity, color, objectionable odour and unpleasent taste
• Adding copper sulphates in the water can control growth of algae
 4.3.2 BACTERIA

• Single celled animal type minute microorganism

• No chlorophyll for making its own food
• Reproduction by bianary fission
• Normally present in contaminated water
• Size are of 1-4 microns and cant be seen with naked eye
 CLASSIFICATION OF BACTERIA
Bacteria
Bacteria

Oxygen Disease causing Life Survival

Shape
need characteristics process temperature

a)Aerobic
a)Cocci a)Saprophytic
b)Anaerobic
b)Bacilla b)parasitic
c)Facultative
c)spirilla
a)Psycrophillic
a)Pathogenic b)Mesophillic
b)Non-pathogenic c)Thermophillic
According to shape

a) Cocci bacteria :- Round, ovoid or spherical shpae

b) Bacilla bacteria :- Straight or rod shaped bacteria
with square or round ends
c) Spirilla bacteria :- curved rods comma shaped or
helical or spical shaped
According to oxygen need

a) Aerobic bacteria :- Bacteria that needs oxygen to

survive
b) Anaerobic bacteria :- Bacteria that can survive in the
absence of oxygen
c) Facultative bacteria :- Bacteria that can live and
multiply with or without oxygen
According to disease causing characteristics

a) Pathogenic bacteria :- Capable of causing disease

within the living organism on which they subsit
b) Non-Pathogenic bacteria :- Do not cause disease within
the living organism

According to the life process

c) Saprophytic bacteria :- Bacteria which live in dead or
decaying organic matter of plant and animals
d) Parasite bacteria :- Bacteria which live and multiply on
or within the body of living organism of higher type
According to temperature at which they
survive

a) Psycrophillic bacteria :- Bacteria which can survive

between 10 to 20 degree celsius
b) Mesophillic bacteria :- Bacteria which can survive
between 20 to 40 degree celsius
c) Thermophillic bacteria :- :- Bacteria which can
survive between 40 to 65 degree celsius
 INDICATOR ORGANISM
• Basic monitoring tool used to measure both changes in
environmental water quality and potential presence of
pathogenic organism
• Indicator organism is not necessarily a pathogen
• Coliforms and E-coil are used as indicator organism because
they are in large no. and have similar survival time to pathogen
under physical, chemical and nutrient condition
• Each gram of human faces contains approximately 100 billion
bacteria
• Positive test result indicates that water is contaminated with
sewage and feces
 4.3.3 VIRUSES

• Unicellilar and infectious for plants and animals

• Grows in animal organ and dies if left in air
• Ultramicroscopic in size ( 10-50 mimmimicrons)
• Parasitic in nature
• Causes diseases like paralysis, hepatitis, throat disease etc
• Water can be prevented from virus by adding high amount of
 4.4.4 WORMS (HELMINTHES)

• Microscopic as well as macroscopic in nature

• Can enter directly in the human body through skin or on
drinking water
• Parasitic as well as free living
• Causes schistosoniasis
Classification of worms

a) Nematodes :- Round in cross section

Eg, Round worm, Hook worm
b) Flat worms :-
i) Tape worm :- Consist of segmented body part and
each segment being capable of developing new
worm
ii) Fluke worm :- Consist of single unsegmented body
and are also called trematodes
4.4 Water Related Diseases

 The diseases such as cholera, typhoid fever, diarrhea,

dysentery, hepatitis, etc are caused primarily by the
consumption of unsafe water and also by the unhygienic
practices due to insufficient quantity of water available.
 The world health organization (who) has estimated that as
many as 80 percent of all infectious diseases in the world
are associated with insufficient and unsafe water.
 Every year 3.575 million people die of water related
 CLASSIFICATION
BASED ON MODE OF TRANSMISSION
Water Related Diseases

Eg:- Cholera, Typhoid

Water Borne Diseases fever, diarrhea,
dysentery, Guinea Worm
Eg:-Shigellosis, Scabies,
Water Washed Diseases Ascariasis,Trachoma
and conjuctivitis

Water Based Diseases Eg:-Schistosomiasis

Eg:-Malaria,
Water vector Diseases
Arboviruses, Filariasis
 4.4.1 Water Borne Diseases

 Water-borne diseases are any

illness caused by drinking water
contaminated by human or
animal faeces, which contain
pathogenic microorganisms.
 Also called water quality
diseases.
 Each year, waterborne diseases
afflict hundreds of millions of Source:
commons.wikimedia.org
people, primarily those living
without safe, accessible water in
developing countries.
 TYPES OF
CONTAMINATION

CHEMICAL CONTAMINATION:-
• Water borne chemical diseases are illness associated with ingestion
of water containing toxic substances in harmful concentrations. The
substances may be of natural origin or manmade and include metals
such as arsenic,iron, etc , inorganic chemicals such as fluoride, nitrate,
etc. And organic chemicals.
• In some cases, contamination of water is caused by industrial wastes
and drainage from fields containing harmful pesticides.
• It’s not major problem as microbiological diseases in context of nepal.
CHEMICAL CONTAMINATION
 MICROBIOLOGICAL
CONTAMINATION
• It’s major part of our concern.
• Human faeces contaminate water supplies and trigger
a variety of diseases of microbiological nature.
Source:-medulance.com
 CHOLER
A

Fig:-Bacterium Vibrio
Cholerae

• It is intestinal disease caused by the bacterium vibrio cholerae.

• The victim vomits and passes extremely watery stools.
 SYMPTOMS

 Loss of skin elasticity

 Low blood pressure
 Vomiting
 Increased thirst
 Rapid weight loss
Diarrhea
 DIARRHEA
 It is estimated that more than 500 million cases of diarrhea occur each
year in children less than five years of age in developing countries.
 Most high intensities of diarrhea are associated with defective water
supplies and poor sanitation and hygiene practices.
 Causes
 Irritable bowel syndrome, especially during times of increased stress
 Side effects from medications, such as antibiotics and magnesium-
containing antacids
 Overuse of laxatives
 Inflammation of the lowest part of the intestine (ulcerative colitis).
4.4WATER BORNE DISEASES

4.4.4 water vector diseases

I) malaria
Ii)arboviruses (yellow
fever and dengue)
Iii) filariasis
4.4.5 transmission routes
4.4.6 preventive measures
 VECTORS

• SOURCE: ABHIMANUIAS.COM
 4.4.4 WATER VECTOR DISEASES

• The Diseases Which Are Transmitted By Insects Which Breed In Or Near Water
Are Called Water Vector Diseases.

• For Example:

1) Malaria

2)arboviruses(yellow Fever And Dengue)

3)filariasis
 WATER VECTOR DISEASES-
PROCESS OF TRANSMISSION
• The Transmission Of Diseases Involve At Least Three
Livimg Things-a Host(man And Animal), A Parasite
That Causes The Diseases(protozoa,virus Or Worm)
And A Carrier Or Vector(insect, Fly Or Mosquito).
• Transmission Occurs when Insect Becomes
Infected with Disease organism from Biting A Person
Or Animal , And Then Bites Another person.
• The parasites Are Injected Into The skin Of
Bloodstream By The Insect Bite, The Diseases
Being called Water Insect carried Diseases.
 MALARIA
• Malaria Is An Infection Of Human By Protozoan
Transmitted Through Mosquito Bite.
• Symptoms Include Patient Feeling bad For No Specific
Reason Initially.
• Chills. Fever. Headaches, Nausea And Heavy Sweating
Follow Thereafter And The Cycle Is Repeated daily Or
Every several Days For Weeks, Months or Even Longer If
Not Treated.
• Relapses Are Common And May Occur Without Warning
For Many Years.
 Arboviruses
, The Pulse Slows and Weakens, And The Blood Comes throuThe Arboviral
Diseases Transmitted By Mosquito Bite Include Yellow Fever And Dengue.
Yellow Fever Is Infectious Disease Of Short duration and The Attack May
Be Mild Or Severe.
Early Symptoms Of Yellow Fever Include Fever, Head And Body
Aches, nausea And Vomiting.
As The Disease Progressesgh nosebleed, Vomiting Or Stools.
Jaundice Is moderate Early But Becomes Severe later.
Dengue Has Similar Early Symptoms but Is Accompanied By A Rash ,
Recovering Patients suffer fatigue For Long Time.
Epidemics Of Disease are Explosive But Death Are Rare.
 FILARIASIS

Infection With Thread Like Worms Of Genus Filaria Is Called

Filariasis.
Worms Are Transmitted By mosquito Bites.
Early Symptoms Include fever And Inflammation Of
Lymph nodes
Prolonged And Repeated Infection Includes obstruction Of
Lymph Flow leading To enlargement Of Lymph, Breasts And
Genitals.
Also Called elephantiasis , A Horribly disfiguring And
 4.4.5 TRANSMISSION ROUTES
Transmission Is Mainly Related To Water Supply, Sanitation , Usually To
Inadequate And Improper Disposal Of Human Wastes And To
Contaminated Water Supplies.
Diseases Are transmitted Through contact Or With Consumption Of
Water , Contact With Infected soil, The Bites Of Insects that Breed in Or
Near Water and Poor Personal and Family Hygiene.
Man Is The Source Of Organisms That Cause The Diseases And Human
Activity Is The Important Factor In The Transmission Of diseases.
Most Of The water Related Diseases Are Spread By Pathogens present
In Human excreta through Fecal-oral Mechanism , The Mechanism By
Which feces Of an Infected individual Are Transmitted To Mouth Of
New host Through Variety Of Routes.
 Transmission Routes of water borne diseases
Category Diseases Organism Transmission Routes
Water borne Cholera Bacteria By consuming contaminated water
Diseases Typhoid Fever
Diarrhea
Bacteria
.
Bacteria, virus
containing infectious dose of
pathogens where transmission is
Dysentery Bacteria, protozoan by swallowing water flea infected
Guinea Worm Worm with worm lava shed from skin
blister or infected human

Water washed Shigellosis Bacteria Fecal-oral or skin to skin direct

Diseases Trachoma Bacteria contact
Scabies Mite
Ascariasis Worm

Water contact Schistosomiasis Worm Eggs in feces or urine hatch

Diseases penetrate skin when person comes
in contact with infected water

Water vector Malaria Protozoan Through bite of insects like

Diseases Arboviruses Virus mosquitos which breed near water.
Filariasis Worm
 STATISTICS

SOURCE: WHO(2019)
 4.4.6 PREVENTIVE MEASURES
Identification Of Transmission Mechanism Is Helpful In
The Selection Of Suitable Preventive Measures.
The Barriers Should Be Employed In The transmission
Route to disrupt transmission Of Diseases.
Barriers Are Namely Primary And Secondary Barriers.
Primary Barriers are Employed By : A) washing Hands
With Soap After Defecation
B) constructing Sanitation Facilities to prevent the spread
of diseases.
 PREVENTIVE MEASURES.....
• Secondary Barriers Are Hygiene Practices That Prevent
The fecal pathogens From Multiplying And Reaching The New Host
And These Are Employed By : A) washing Hands Before Food
B) cooking And Reheating food To Prevent survival And
Multiplication Of Pathogens.
• C) Protecting Water Supplies From Contamination
Through boiling Or chlorination.
• Other Secondary Barriers Include keeping Playgrounds Free From
Fecal Contaminants, preventing Children From Eating Earth And
Controlling Flies Etc
 PREVENTIVE MEASURES....

Safe Human Excreta Disposal

Personal Hygiene
Domestic Hygiene And Animal Management
Food Hygiene
Water Hygiene/ Consumption Of Safe Water And
Safe Waste Water Disposal And Drainage.
 4.5 EXAMINATION OF WATER:
Analysis of the water done to find out the quality of the water by
determining the various impurities present in the water present in
the water with their concentration.
 It is done before and after the water treatment .
Analysis of the raw water helps in then selection of the water
treatment process & analysis of the treated water helps in to
determine the efficiency of the treatment process and suitability

for drinking purpose .

 Types of examination of the water
• Following three types of the examinations are
carried out for water :
Examination of
water

2) Chemical
1)Physical 3)Bactoriological
Examination:
Examination :Don examination:
Done to determine
e to determine the Used to
the Chemical
physical determine the
impurities & their
impurities & their micro organism
characteristic
characteristic in the water
 4.5.1 PHYSICAL EXAMINATION OF
WATER
Physical examination of water includes:
A) Temperature b) Color
C)Turbidity

Temperature :
Affects physical properties of water such as density, viscosity, surface tension
saturation value of gases etc.
Affects chemical and biological activity. At the lower temperature the rate if
the biological activity is lower and vice versa.
10°c to 15°c of water is desirable for drinking.
 Determination Of Temperature In
Laboratory

 Pour about 200ml of water into the beaker.

 Dip the thermometer into the water.
 Allow enough time for the fluid in the
thermometer to reach a steady reading.
 Read the temperature in the thermometer.
 COLOUR
Caused by dissolved organic material such as leaves, planktons
etc. And inorganic matter such as iron oxides cause reddish colour
and manganese oxides brown or blackish colour.
Expressed in units of platinum cobalt scale i.e. the colour
produced by the one milligram of platinum cobalt in one liter of
distilled water is fixed as one unit of colour. It is also expressed in
terms of the ֩Hazen.
The permissible colour unit on platium cobalt scale is 5 units for
drinking but the colour unit up to 15 may be tolerated.
 DETERMINATION OF COLOUR
IN LABORATORY

Procedure:
 Place the instrument in front of you with the
red switch towards you.
 Open the lid at the top of the instrument.
 Insert the color measurement disc (Hazen
disc).
 Place an empty glass tube in the left hand slot.
 Fill the other tube with the water sample and Fig: Tintometer

place it in the right hand slot.

 Close the lid of the instrument.
 Switch on the instrument.
 Look through the eyepiece on top of the
instrument and turn the disc until the color on
the disc matches the color of the water.
 Read the color value from the aperture at the
 TURBIDITY
 It is the measure of the resistance to the passage of the
light through it
Caused due to suspended matters such as clay, silt, soluble
colored organic compound etc.
The standard unit of turbidity is the turbidity produced by
one milligram of fuller’s earth in the form of finely divided
silica in one liter of distilled water
Expressed on JTU, NTU, FTU.
The permissible turbidity is 5 ntu but up to 10 ntu, it ay be
tolerated.
 DETERMINATION OF TURBIDITY
IN LABORATORY
• Procedure:
Turn on the instrument , allow 10 minutes for stabilization.
Pour about 25 ml of water sample into the sample cell.
Select the NTU standard and put the stand into sample holder
and cover the light shield.
Adjust the scale reading to 100 using the standard knob with the
range switch at 100.
Remove the standard solution and replace with sample cell and
cover with the light shield.
Read the scale and record the reading.
If the reading is greater than 10, standardize on 100 NTU.
Record with 100 NTU standards
Clean the cells after use.
 4.5.2 CHEMICAL
EXAMINATION OF WATER
• This examination includes the test
for the pH and solid
pH
pH is defined as the logarithm of the
reciprocal of hydrogen ion(h+ion
concentration in water as shown by the
expression below)
pH=log(1/[H+])
 LAW OF MASS ACTION

𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑋𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
Constant

𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
• [H+] X [OH-] = Ionization constant
• HERE,
• Ionization constant = 10^(-14) AT 21°C.
• PH=LOG(1/[𝐻+])
 Determination Of pH In Laboratory
• PROCEDURE:
 Pour some pH 4 buffer solution into one the 100ml beakers.
 Take the temperature of the solution.
 Set this temperature on the dial of the meter.
 Switch on the meter and set into “pH manual”.
 Remove the electrode form the beaker in which it is stored and wash it
down with de-ionised or distilled water.
 Place the electrode in the buffer solution.
 The meter should read pH 4.
 If the meter does not read pH 4 use the knob marked “buffer to set the
reading to pH 4”.
 Remove the electrode form the buffer and wash it down with deionised or
distilled water.
 Pour some of the water sample into 250 ml beaker.
 Wash down the electrode and place it in the sample.12.Record the pH value
 SOLID
Solid present in the water are either in dissolved solid or
suspended solid.
The total solid is the sum of the dissolved solid and the
suspended solid.
Dissolved solid result from the solvent action of the water.
Dissolved solid may be inorganic salts, minerals, organic
matters.
Suspended particle may consist of the organic and
inorganic matters.
 DETERMINATION OF SOLID IN
LABORATORY
(A)To measure the suspended solids in sample of sewage
• Procedure:
Weigh the membrane filter circle accurately = A gm.
Fix the circle in the filter holder.
Measure the volume of the sample sewage. A volume of 50 ml to be
measured for raw sewage.
Transfer the sample to the funnel and vacuum the filter.
Carefully, transfer the filter circle to the drying oven and dry for 30
minutes at 105oc.
Remove the circle form the oven and cool it in a dessicator.
Re-weight =B gm. Suspended solid content in the original
sample(mg/l) = (B-A) X 1000/vol. Of water used (50 ml)
• (B)To determine the amount of total solids in given sample
• procedure:
 Place a clean evaporating dish in the drying oven at 105oc, for 30
minutes.
 Weigh the dish , W = A gm
 Measure 50 ml of water sample with the help of a pipette and transfer to
the evaporating dish.
 Put the dish on the burner and evaporate it to dryness.
 Put it to the drying oven for 10 minutes.
 Remove the dish from the oven and place in the desiccator to cool for 5
minutes.
 Weigh the dish + residue, W = B gm total solids = 2 X (B –A) X 104mg/l.
 Compare your value with the WHO standards.
 4.5.3 BACTERIOLOGICAL
EXAMINATION
Here, in this examination, the concentration of coliforms and E-
coli are tested rather than pathogens because they are small in
numbers and their testing is time consuming and expensive.
There are two methods of determining coliform and E-coli in the
lab:
➢Multiple tube fermentation technique
➢Membrane filter fermentation technique
 MULTIPLE TUBE
FERMENTATION TECHNIQUE

Consists of multiple numbers of standard fermentation

tubes called Durham tube.
This method includes three tests, which are:
i. Presumptive test
ii. Confirmed test
iii. Completed test
• Presumptive test
Based on the ability of coliform group of bacteria to ferment
lactose broth at 37°cand produce gas.
• Fermentation
Any energy-releasing metabolic process that takes place only
under anaerobic conditions.
 • Procedure
Test is
Yes
Definite diluted sample positive
taken in multiples of 10 at Observe Gas
Temp 37°Cfor 24 hours in tubes
which ferments lactose
broth. Test is
• No
negative

yes
Proceed to next yes
test Proceed to
Results in all tubes next test
positive
N Observe
Continue same Sample with
o Gas in
test for another negative
tubes
24 hours result are
N discarded
Confirmed Test
➢Except coliforms, other bacteria may also ferment lactose broth
and produce gas.
➢This test thus confirms the result with more degree of accuracy.
➢Consists of growing cultures of coliform group of bacteria on
media which suppress the growth of other organisms.
 • Procedure

Yes Test is
Samples from Presumptive
positive
test transferred to fermentation
Observe Gas
tubes containing brilliant
in tubes
green lactose broth at temp
37°Cfor 24 hours
• No Test is
negative

yes
Proceed to yes
Proceed to
next test
Results in all tubes next tes
positive
N Observe
o Continue same
Gas in
test for another Sample with
tubes
24 hours negative result
N are discarded
Completed Test
 Demonstrates certainly that the organisms showing
positive results in the confirmed tests are members of
coliform group.
 • Procedure

Yes Test is
Discrete
Positive result sample from positive
isolated
confirmed test placed in Eosin colonies at
methylene blue agarfor 37°C& 37°Cfor 24
24 hours. hours
• No Test is
negative

yes
yes Test is
End all test
positive. End
Results in all tubes all Tests
positive
N Observe
o Continue same
Gas in
test for another Sample with
tubes
24 hours negative result
N are discarded
 Most Probable Number

It is a number that expresses number of coliforms present in water.

Number of positive tube

MPN/1000ml= * 100

ml in negative tubes *ml in all tubes

Standard samples i.e No. of

combination of 3 10 positive
No. of positive
ml, 1 ml, 0.1 ml each result of
result of these test
is taken these test is
is recorded
recorded
 Table 4-3 MPN indexfor Selected combinations

Number Of Tube giving

positive Results out of 95% Confidence Limit

3 of 1 3 of 0.1
3of 10 ml each ml each ml each MPN Index lower Upper
0 0 1 3 <0.5 9
0 1 0 3 <0.5 13
1 0 0 4 <0.5 20
1 0 1 7 1 21
1 1 0 7 1 23
1 1 1 11 3 36
1 2 0 11 3 36
2 0 0 9 1 36
2 0 1 14 3 37
2 1 0 15 3 44
2 1 1 20 7 89
2 2 0 21 4 47
2 2 1 28 10 150
3 0 0 23 4 120
3 0 1 39 7 130
3 0 2 64 15 380
3 1 0 43 7 210
3 1 1 75 14 230
3 1 2 120 30 380
3 2 0 93 15 380
3 2 1 150 30 440
3 2 2 210 35 470
3 3 0 240 36 1300
3 3 1 460 71 2400
 (B) Membrane filter fermentation technique

 Recent method of detecting the coliform group of bacteria and

measuring concentrations.
Filter 20 ml
of water Filter placed on
Sterile membrane Kept in
sample plate containing
filter with funnel with
using M-Endo medium
microscopic pores vacuum
vacuum nutrient
5 to 10 mμ pump
pump

Count no of Bacteria if present

coliform develop into Incubate at
colonies visible colonies. 37°Cfor 20 hours

Number of coliform colonies counted

Coliform colonies per100ml= X 100
ml of water sample taken
4.6Water Quality Standard
The maximum concentration of impurities in water at
which it is not harmful to human health and water can be
supplied safely is termed as standards
The standards for various types of water quality parameter
are known as water quality standard. It depends on the
intended purpose of water use.
Water Quality Standards For Drinking
Purpose

Nepal Vs WHO Standard

Parameter Unit Maximum concentration limits

NDWDQS WHO++
Turbidity NTU 5(10)** 5
pH 6.5-8.5** 6.5-8.5*
Colour TCU 5(15)* 5
Taste and Odor Would not be
objectionable
Total dissolved solid mg/l 1000
Electrical conductivity µc/cm 1500
Iron mg/l 0.3(3)** 0.3
Manganese mg/l 0.2 0.1
Arsenic mg/l 0.05 0.01
Cadmium mg/l 0.003 0.003
Chromium mg/l 0.05 0.05
Cyanide mg/l 0.07 0.07
Fluoride mg/l 0.5-1.5* 1.5
Lead mg/l 0.01 0.01
Ammonia mg/l 1.5 1.5
Chloride mg/l 250 250
Sulphate mg/l 250 250
Calcium mg/l 25
Magnesium mg/l 20
Sodium mg/l 150
Potassium mg/l 12
Nitrate mg/l 50 10
Nitrite mg/l 0.01
Copper mg/l 1 2
Total Hardness mg/l 500 500
Total Alkalinity mg/l 500
Calcium mg/l 200 25
Zinc mg/l 3 3
Nickel mg/l 0.02
Barium mg/l 0.7
Boron mg/l 0.3
Mercury mg/l 0.001 0.001
Uranium mg/l 0.002
Aluminium mg/l 0.2 0.2
Residual Chlorine mg/l 0.1-0.2*
 E-Coil MPN/l 0 0
Total Coliform MPN/l 95% in sample 0

Note: * These standard indicate the maximum and minimum limits

**Figures in parenthesis are upper range of the standard
recommendation
+National Drinking Water Quality Standard(NDWQS),Nepal
++ World Health Organization(WHO)
THANK YOU