THERMODYNAMICS AND ENERGY

• Thermodynamics: The science of

energy.
• Energy: The ability to cause changes.
• The name thermodynamics stems from
the Greek words therme (heat) and
dynamis (power).
• Conservation of energy principle:
During an interaction, energy can change
from one form to another but the total
amount of energy remains constant.
• Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
• The first law of thermodynamics: An
expression of the conservation of energy
principle.
• The first law asserts that energy is a Energy cannot be created
thermodynamic property. or destroyed; it can only
change forms (the first law).
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• The second law of thermodynamics:
It asserts that energy has quality as
well as quantity, and actual processes
occur in the direction of decreasing
quality of energy.
• Classical thermodynamics: A
macroscopic approach to the study of
thermodynamics that does not require
a knowledge of the behavior of Conservation of energy
individual particles. principle for the human body.

• It provides a direct and easy way to the

solution of engineering problems and it
is used in this text.
• Statistical thermodynamics: A
microscopic approach, based on the
average behavior of large groups of
individual particles.
• It is used in this text only in the
Heat flows in the direction of
supporting role. decreasing temperature. 2
Application Areas of Thermodynamics

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 IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
• Any physical quantity can be characterized by
dimensions.
• The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions
are called units.
• Some basic dimensions such as mass m,
length L, time t, and temperature T are
selected as primary or fundamental
dimensions, while others such as velocity V,
energy E, and volume V are expressed in
terms of the primary dimensions and are
called secondary dimensions, or derived
dimensions.
• Metric SI system: A simple and logical
system based on a decimal relationship
between the various units.
• English system: It has no apparent
systematic numerical base, and various units
in this system are related to each other rather
arbitrarily. 4
 SYSTEMS AND CONTROL VOLUMES
• System: A quantity of matter or a region
in space chosen for study.
• Surroundings: The mass or region
outside the system
• Boundary: The real or imaginary surface
that separates the system from its
surroundings.
• The boundary of a system can be fixed or
movable.
• Systems may be considered to be closed
or open.
• Closed system
(Control mass):
A fixed
amount of mass,
and no mass
can cross its
boundary.
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 • Open system (control volume): A properly
selected region in space.
• It usually encloses a device that involves
mass flow such as a compressor, turbine, or
nozzle.
• Both mass and energy can cross the
boundary of a control volume.
• Control surface: The boundaries of a
control volume. It can be real or imaginary.

An open system (a
control volume) with one
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inlet and one exit.
 PROPERTIES
OF A SYSTEM
• Property: Any characteristic of a
system.
• Some familiar properties are
pressure P, temperature T, volume
V, and mass m.
• Properties are considered to be
either intensive or extensive.
• Intensive properties: Those that
are independent of the mass of a
system, such as temperature,
pressure, and density.
• Extensive properties: Those
whose values depend on the size—
or extent—of the system.
• Specific properties: Extensive Criterion to differentiate intensive
properties per unit mass. and extensive properties.
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 Continuum
• Matter is made up of atoms that are
widely spaced in the gas phase. Yet
it is very convenient to disregard the
atomic nature of a substance and
view it as a continuous,
homogeneous matter with no holes,
that is, a continuum.
• The continuum idealization allows us
to treat properties as point functions
and to assume the properties vary
continually in space with no jump
discontinuities.
• This idealization is valid as long as
the size of the system we deal with
is large relative to the space Despite the large gaps between
between the molecules. molecules, a substance can be treated as
• This is the case in practically all a continuum because of the very large
problems. number of molecules even in an
• In this text we will limit our extremely small volume.
consideration to substances that can
be modeled as a continuum.
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Dimensional homogeneity

In an equation all the terms must be

dimensionally homogeneous meaning all
terms should have same units (SI units) and
same prefix.
Weight: “The force with which earth attracts
quantity of matter having mass ‘m’ to its
centre”
mathematically W = mg
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DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Density Specific gravity: The ratio
of the density of a
substance to the density of
some standard substance at
a specified temperature
Specific volume
(usually water at 4°C).

Specific weight: The

weight of a unit volume
of a substance.

Density is
mass per unit
volume;
specific volume
is volume per
unit mass.
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STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
• Thermodynamics deals with
equilibrium states.
• Equilibrium: A state of balance.
• In an equilibrium state there are no
unbalanced potentials (or driving
forces) within the system.
• Thermal equilibrium: If the
temperature is the same throughout
the entire system.
A system at two different states.
• Mechanical equilibrium: If there is
no change in pressure at any point
of the system with time.
• Phase equilibrium: If a system
involves two phases and when the
mass of each phase reaches an
equilibrium level and stays there.
• Chemical equilibrium: If the
chemical composition of a system
does not change with time, that is,
no chemical reactions occur. A closed system reaching thermal
equilibrium. 11
The State Postulate
• The number of properties
required to fix the state of a
system is given by the state
postulate:
 The state of a simple
compressible system is
completely specified by
two independent,
intensive properties.
• Simple compressible
system: If a system involves
The state of nitrogen is
no electrical, magnetic,
fixed by two independent,
gravitational, motion, and intensive properties.
surface tension effects.
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PROCESSES AND CYCLES
Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to
another.
Path: The series of states through which a system passes during a process.
To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states,
as well as the path it follows, and the interactions with the surroundings.
Quasistatic or quasi-equilibrium process: When a process proceeds in such
a manner that the system remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state
at all times.

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• Process diagrams plotted by
employing thermodynamic properties
as coordinates are very useful in
visualizing the processes.
• Some common properties that are
used as coordinates are temperature
T, pressure P, and volume V (or
specific volume v).
• The prefix iso- is often used to
designate a process for which a
particularproperty remains constant.
• Isothermal process: A process
during which the temperature T
remains constant.
• Isobaric process: A process during
which the pressure P remains
constant.
• Isochoric (or isometric) process: A
process during which the specific The P-V diagram of a compression
volume v remains constant. process.
• Cycle: A process during which the
initial and final states are identical.
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The Steady-Flow Process
• The term steady implies no
change with time. The
opposite of steady is
unsteady, or transient.
• A large number of During a steady-
engineering devices operate flow process, fluid
for long periods of time properties within
under the same conditions, the control
and they are classified as volume may
steady-flow devices. change with
• Steady-flow process: A position but not
process during which a fluid with time.
flows through a control
volume steadily.
• Steady-flow conditions can
be closely approximated by
devices that are intended for
continuous operation such
as turbines, pumps, boilers,
condensers, and heat
exchangers or power plants Under steady-flow conditions, the mass
or refrigeration systems. and energy contents of a control volume 15
remain constant.
 TEMPERATURE AND THE ZEROTH LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
• The zeroth law of thermodynamics: If two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with
each other.
• By replacing the third body with a thermometer, the zeroth law can
be restated as two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the
same temperature reading even if they are not in contact.

Two bodies reaching

thermal equilibrium
after being brought
into contact in an
isolated enclosure. 16