Throttling process

• A throttling process, in the context of thermodynamics, is a type of

irreversible process in which a fluid undergoes a significant and sudden
change in its state, usually involving a rapid reduction in pressure.
• During a throttling process, there is no heat exchange with the surroundings,
and the process occurs adiabatically.
• The key characteristic of a throttling process is the abrupt decrease in pressure
without any corresponding change in temperature.
• As the fluid passes through a restriction (such as a valve or a narrow passage),
its pressure drops suddenly, causing an increase in velocity. According to the
principle of conservation of energy, this increase in kinetic energy is balanced
by a decrease in the fluid's internal energy, resulting in a drop in temperature.
• In an ideal throttling process, the enthalpy of the refrigerant remains
constant???
• This is based on the assumption that the process is adiabatic (no heat
exchange with the surroundings) and occurs rapidly enough so that
there is no time for appreciable heat transfer between the refrigerant
and its surroundings.
Capillary tube
• A capillary tube is a thin, narrow tube with a small internal diameter,
typically used in various scientific and engineering applications.
• The function of a capillary tube depends on the context in which it is
used. Here are a few common applications:

Refrigeration and Air Conditioning:

• Capillary tubes are often used as expansion devices in refrigeration and air
conditioning systems.
• In these systems, the capillary tube regulates the flow of refrigerant from the
high-pressure side (condenser) to the low-pressure side (evaporator).
• The tube's small diameter creates a significant pressure drop, allowing for the
expansion of the refrigerant and the absorption of heat in the evaporator.
Applied Thermodynamics
ME322 (03 credit hours)

Department of Electrical Engineering

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WEEK 10

Introduction to Semiconductor
Outline
6-1 Introduction to the Second Law
6-2 Thermal Energy Reservoirs
6-3 Heat Engines
6-4 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps
6-5 Perpetual-Motion Machines
6-6 Reversible and Irreversible Processes
6-7 The Carnot Cycle
6-8 The Carnot Principles
6-9 The Thermodynamic Temperature Scale
6-10 The Carnot Heat Engine
6-11 The Carnot Refrigerator and Heat Pump
Chapter 6THE SECOND LAW
OF THERMODYNAMICS
 Objectives
• Introduce the second law of thermodynamics.
• Identify valid processes as those that satisfy both the first and second
laws of thermodynamics.
• Discuss thermal energy reservoirs, reversible and irreversible
processes, heat engines, refrigerators, and heat pumps.
• Describe the Kelvin–Planck and Clausius statements of the second law
of thermodynamics.
• Discuss the concepts of perpetual-motion machines.
• Apply the second law of thermodynamics to cycles and cyclic devices.
• Apply the second law to develop the absolute thermodynamic
temperature scale.
• Describe the Carnot cycle.
• Examine the Carnot principles, idealized Carnot heat engines,
refrigerators, and heat pumps.
• Determine the expressions for the thermal efficiencies and coefficients
of performance for reversible heat engines, heat pumps, and
refrigerators.
 First Law of Thermodynamics
• The first law of thermodynamics, also known as the law of energy
conservation, is a fundamental principle in physics that governs the
conservation of energy in any physical process.

• The law states that the total energy of an isolated system remains
constant over time; energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only
transferred or converted from one form to another.
• This equation indicates that the change in internal energy of a system
is equal to the heat added to the system minus the work done by the
system on its surroundings.
Second Law of Thermodynamics
• The second law of thermodynamics is a fundamental principle in
physics that describes the direction of natural processes and sets limits
on the efficiency of energy conversion.

• There are several statements and formulations of the second law, but
one of the most widely known is the Kelvin-Planck statement and the
Clausius statement.
Kelvin-Planck Statement:
• The Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law asserts that it is
impossible to construct a heat engine that operates in a complete
cycle while extracting heat from a single reservoir and converting all
of it into work. In other words, no heat engine can have 100%
efficiency.
• Efficiency (η) is defined as the ratio of the work output (Wout​) to the
heat input (Qin​) for a heat engine:
INTRODUCTION TO THE SECOND LAW
A cup of hot coffee
does not get hotter in
a cooler room.
Transferring
heat to a
paddle wheel
will not cause
it to rotate.

These processes
Transferring cannot occur
heat to a wire even though they
will not are not in violation
generate
of the first law.
electricity.
• First Law of Thermodynamics: The first law is like a rule that says
you can't create or destroy energy; you can only change its form. It's
about the quantity of energy and how it moves around—like when you
turn on a light, electrical energy becomes light and heat.
• Second Law of Thermodynamics: The second law goes further. It
tells us that not all energy is equally useful. Imagine you have a hot
cup of coffee. The second law says that you can't take all the heat from
the coffee and turn it into useful work, like powering a machine. Some
energy will always be lost or "degraded" in the process.
• Quality of Energy: The second law introduces the idea that energy
has different "qualities." Some energy is more useful than others. For
example, high-temperature heat energy is more valuable than low-
temperature heat. The second law helps us understand and measure
this quality.
• Practical Applications: Engineers use the second law to figure out
the best possible performance for things like engines and refrigerators.
It helps them set limits on how efficient these machines can be. It's
also handy for predicting how well chemical reactions will work. So,
it's not just about quantity; it's about making the most out of the
energy we have.
Processes occur in a
certain direction, and not
in the reverse direction.

A process must satisfy both

the first and second laws of
thermodynamics to proceed.
THERMAL ENERGY RESERVOIR
• 1. Hypothetical Thermal Energy Reservoir: Imagine
we have something like a magical container that can
hold a lot of heat without changing its own
temperature.
• This magical container is called a "thermal energy
reservoir" or simply a "reservoir."
• It's like a big storage tank for heat energy that can give
off heat when needed or absorb heat without changing
its temperature.
• 2. Real-Life Examples of Thermal Energy Reservoirs: In real life,
big bodies of water like oceans, lakes, and rivers, as well as the air
around us, can act like these magical reservoirs.
• They have a huge capacity to store heat, which means they can absorb
a lot of warmth without getting hot themselves or release heat without
getting too cold.
• That's why we can think of them as natural thermal energy reservoirs.
Engineers and scientists find it helpful to model these large bodies of
water and the air as if they were these magical reservoirs when
studying heat and energy.
Source and Sink
• A reservoir that supplies energy in the form of
heat is called a source.
• one that absorbs: sink
HEAT ENGINES
• Work can easily be converted to other forms of
energy (ex: heat)
• Converting other forms of energy to work is not
easy. Need special devices
call HEAT ENGINES
• A heat engine is a device that converts thermal energy (heat) into
mechanical work.
• Heat engines are essential components in various systems, from power
plants to car engines.
• They operate based on the principles of thermodynamics, specifically
the first and second laws.
• Here's a simplified explanation of how heat engines work:
• Input of Heat:
• Heat engines require a high-temperature heat source to provide
thermal energy.
• This source could be combustion of fuel, nuclear reactions, or any
process that produces high-temperature heat.
• Working Fluid:
• A heat engine uses a working fluid, which could be a gas (like air or
steam) or a liquid (like water or a refrigerant).
• The working fluid undergoes a cycle of processes within the engine.
• Expansion:
• The working fluid absorbs heat from the high-temperature source,
causing it to undergo an expansion.
• In the case of a gas, this often involves the gas doing work against a
piston or a turbine.
• Conversion to Mechanical Work:
• The expanding working fluid is used to perform mechanical work.
• For example, in a piston engine, the expanding gas pushes a piston,
and in a steam turbine, it drives the turbine blades.
• This mechanical work is what we use to power machines, generators,
or other devices.
• Exhaust and Rejection of Heat:
• After doing work, the working fluid is exhausted or released to a
lower-temperature reservoir.
• In this process, the working fluid releases some of the heat it gained
during the expansion.
• Compression:
• The working fluid may then undergo a compression process to prepare
it for the next cycle.
• This compression is often achieved using a compressor or a piston,
and it requires the input of mechanical work.
 Repeating the Cycle:
The working fluid goes through the cycle repeatedly, with the continuous input
of heat, expansion, work, and the release of heat.
• The most common cycle used in heat engines is the Rankine cycle for
steam engines and turbines, and the Otto or Diesel cycles for internal
combustion engines.
Heat Engines
Steam power plant
• A steam power plant is a type of heat engine that converts thermal
energy (heat) into mechanical work by using steam as the working
fluid.
• The basic components of a steam power plant include a boiler, a steam
turbine, a condenser, and a generator.
• Boiler:
• The process begins in the boiler, where water is heated to produce
steam.

• This is typically achieved by burning fossil fuels like coal, natural gas,
or oil, or by using nuclear reactions or other heat sources.

• The high-temperature heat generated in the boiler turns water into

steam.
• Steam Turbine:
• The high-pressure steam generated in the boiler is directed to a steam
turbine.
• The steam turbine is a device with blades that spin when steam flows
over them.
• As the high-speed steam flows through the turbine blades, it causes the
turbine to rotate.
• Mechanical Work:
• The rotation of the steam turbine is connected to a shaft, and this
rotational motion is used to do mechanical work.
• The mechanical work is typically used to drive an electric generator.
• Generator:
• The steam turbine is connected to a generator, which converts the
mechanical energy from the turbine into electrical energy.
• This is where the primary purpose of the power plant comes into play
– to generate electricity.
• Condenser:
• After performing work in the turbine, the steam is directed to a
condenser.
• The condenser is a heat exchanger that cools and condenses the steam
back into water.
• This phase change from steam to water releases heat, which is usually
transferred to a cooling medium, such as water from a nearby river or
a cooling tower.
• Water Pump:
• The condensed water is then pumped back to the boiler to be heated
again and turned into steam. This process is called the Rankine cycle,
and it repeats to maintain a continuous and efficient operation of the
steam power plant.
Summary
• A steam power plant operates as a heat engine by cyclically converting
heat energy into mechanical work and then into electrical energy.
• The steam turbine plays a crucial role in this process, and the
efficiency of the overall system depends on how effectively it can
convert thermal energy into mechanical work.
 Steam power plant
● The work-producing device that best fits into the
definition of a heat engine is the steam power plant.
● The various quantities involve in steam power plant
are:
Qin = amount of heat supplied to steam in boiler from
a high-temperature source (furnace)
Qout = amount of heat rejected from steam in
condenser to a lowtemperature sink (the atmosphere, a
river, etc.)
Wout = amount of work delivered by steam as it
expands in turbine
Win = amount of work required to compress water to
boiler pressure
Net work output
• The net work output of this power plant is simply:
Wnet,out = Wout – Win (kJ)
• For a closed system undergoing a cycle, the change
in internal energy ΔU is zero, and therefore:
Wnet,out = Qin – Qout (kJ)
Thermal Efficiency
• Qout is never zero; thus, the net work output of a
heat engine is always less than the amount of heat
input (Qin).
• The fraction of the heat input that is converted to
net work output is a measure of the performance
of a heat engine and is called the thermal
efficiency (ηth)
Thermal efficiency
• Other expression:
 TH, TL, QH and QL
● Cyclic devices (heat engines, refrigerators, and heat
pumps) operate between a high-temperature medium
(or reservoir) at temperature TH and a low-temperature
medium (or reservoir) at temperature TL.
● We define these two quantities:
QH = magnitude of heat transfer between the cyclic
device and the high temperature medium at
temperature TH
● QL = magnitude of heat transfer between the cyclic
device and the low temperature medium at temperature
TL
Thermal efficiency (other expression)

Also works with rate (dot)

Can we save Qout?

A heat-engine cycle cannot be completed without

rejecting some heat to a low-temperature sink.
In a steam power plant, the condenser is the device where large quantities
of waste heat is rejected to rivers, lakes, or the atmosphere.
Can we not just take the condenser out of the plant and save all that waste
energy?
The answer is, unfortunately, a firm no for the simple reason that without a
heat rejection process in a condenser, the cycle cannot be completed.

Every heat engine must

waste some energy by
transferring it to a low-
temperature reservoir in order
to complete the cycle, even
under idealized conditions.