Applied Thermodynamics

ME 322
3.0 Cr. Hrs

Dr. Sohail Gohar

Outline
3.1 Pure Substance
3.2 Phases of a Pure Substance
3.3 Phase-Change Processes of Pure Substances
Compressed Liquid and
Saturated Liquid
Saturated Vapor and Superheated Vapor
Saturation Temperature and Saturation Pressure
Some Consequences of Tsat and Psat Dependence
3.4 Property Diagrams for Phase-Change Processes
1 The T-v Diagram
2 The P-v Diagram
Extending the Diagrams to Include the Solid Phase
3 The P-T Diagram
The P-v-T Surface
Outline
3.5 Property Tables
Enthalpy—A Combination Property
la Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor States
lb Saturated Liquid-Vapor Mixture
2 Superheated Vapor
3 Compressed Liquid
Reference State and Reference Values
 PURE SUBSTANCE
• In thermodynamics, a "pure substance" refers to a
substance that is uniform and homogeneous
throughout its composition, meaning it consists of a
single type of molecule or chemical compound.

• This is in contrast to mixtures, which are combinations

of different substances.

• Pure substances have specific and well-defined

thermodynamic properties that are consistent at a
given temperature and pressure.
4
Uniform and homogeneous throughout its
composition???
• A glass of well-mixed fruit juice is both uniform and homogeneous.
You cannot see distinct layers or parts; it appears the same
throughout.

• A mixture of oil and water, on the other hand, is not homogeneous

but may still be uniform if the oil and water are thoroughly mixed,
creating a consistent appearance.
consists of a single type of molecule or
chemical compound???
• A pure substance consists of identical molecules or atoms. This
uniformity is what distinguishes it from mixtures, which contain
multiple types of molecules or compounds.
• The molecules or atoms in a pure substance are chemically identical
and have the same chemical formula. This means that every part of
the substance is composed of the same type of particle.
• Examples of pure substances include elements (e.g., oxygen,
hydrogen) and chemical compounds (e.g., water, carbon dioxide)
where all the molecules are identical.
 Thermodynamic properties???
• Thermodynamic properties are characteristics or attributes of a substance that describe its state and behavior in a
thermodynamic system.
• These properties provide valuable information about how a substance responds to changes in temperature, pressure, and other
external factors.
• Thermodynamic properties can be categorized into two main types: intensive properties and extensive properties.

• Intensive Properties: These properties do not depend on the size or quantity of the substance. They are intrinsic to the material
and describe its state at a specific point. Some common intensive properties include:
• Temperature (T):
• Pressure (P): Density (ρ): The mass per unit volume.
• Specific volume (v):
• Specific internal energy (u):
• Specific enthalpy (h):
• Specific entropy (s):

• Extensive Properties: These properties depend on the quantity or mass of the substance. They provide information about the
total quantity of a substance. Common extensive properties include:
• Total internal energy (U):
• Total enthalpy (H):
• Total entropy (S):
• Total volume (V):
Consistent at a given temperature and
pressure???
• For example, if you have a sample of pure water at a particular
temperature and pressure, the specific volume, density, enthalpy, and
entropy of that water will have fixed, unchanging values as long as the
temperature and pressure remain constant.
• Any change in temperature or pressure will result in a new state with
its own set of well-defined thermodynamic properties.
Phases of pure substance
• Phases of a pure substance refer to the different physical states or conditions in which the
substance can exist under varying combinations of temperature and pressure.
• The most common phases of a pure substance are solid, liquid, and gas. Let's explore
these phases in more detail:

• Solid Phase: In the solid phase, the particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) of a pure
substance are closely packed and arranged in a highly ordered, repeating structure.

• Solids have definite shapes and volumes. The particles in a solid are held together by
strong intermolecular or interatomic forces.

• Examples include ice (solid water) and the crystal structure of metals.
• Liquid Phase: In the liquid phase, the particles of a pure substance are more
loosely packed than in a solid, allowing them to move and slide past each
other.

• Liquids have definite volumes but not definite shapes; they take the shape of
their container.

• Liquid particles are held together by weaker intermolecular forces compared

to solids.

• Examples include liquid water and liquid mercury.

• Gas Phase: In the gas phase, the particles of a pure substance are widely
spaced and move randomly at high speeds.

• Gases do not have definite shapes or volumes and expand to fill the
entire container.

• Gas particles experience minimal intermolecular forces.

• Examples include the air we breathe (a mixture of gases) and gaseous

oxygen.
Advanced
• Supercritical Fluid: Under conditions of high temperature and
pressure, a substance can exist as a supercritical fluid. It exhibits
properties of both gases and liquids and is often used in industrial
processes.

• Plasma: At extremely high temperatures, matter can become ionized,

resulting in a plasma phase. Plasmas are electrically conductive and
are commonly found in stars, lightning, and some industrial
applications.
Phase change process of pure substance
• Phase-change processes of a pure substance involve transitions
between different physical phases, such as solid, liquid, and gas, as a
result of changes in temperature and pressure.

• These processes are fundamental in thermodynamics and are crucial

in various engineering and scientific applications. Let's explain the
phase-change processes of pure substances:
1. Melting (Solid to Liquid):

• Description: Melting is the phase-change process where a solid

substance transitions into a liquid state. It occurs when the substance
is heated to a specific temperature called the melting point.

• Example: Ice (solid water) melting into liquid water at 0 degrees

Celsius under normal atmospheric pressure.
2. Freezing (Liquid to Solid):

• Description: Freezing is the reverse of melting. It's the process in

which a liquid substance transitions into a solid state as it cools to a
specific temperature, also known as the freezing point.

• Example: Liquid water freezing into ice at 0 degrees Celsius under

normal atmospheric pressure.
3. Vaporization (Liquid to Gas):

• Description: Vaporization includes two processes:

• Evaporation: This is a surface phenomenon in which a liquid turns into vapor
at temperatures below its boiling point.
• Boiling: Boiling is when a liquid rapidly turns into vapor throughout the entire
volume when it reaches its boiling point.

• Example: Water evaporating from a puddle on a hot day and water

boiling in a kettle.
4. Condensation (Gas to Liquid):

• Description: Condensation is the reverse of vaporization, where a gas

transforms into a liquid. It occurs when a gas is cooled or when its
pressure is increased.

• Example: Water vapor in the air condensing into liquid water droplets
on a cold surface, forming dew.
5. Sublimation (Solid to Gas):

• Description: Sublimation is the process in which a solid directly

transitions into a gas without passing through the liquid phase. It
occurs at temperatures and pressures where this transition is
thermodynamically favorable.

• Example: The sublimation of dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) into carbon
dioxide gas.
6. Deposition (Gas to Solid):

• Description: Deposition is the reverse of sublimation, where a gas

transforms directly into a solid. It typically occurs when a gas is cooled
and loses energy.

• Example: Water vapor in the air turning into frost on a cold surface.
• Compressed liquid (subcooled liquid): A substance that it is not about to vaporize.

• Saturated liquid: A liquid that is about to vaporize.

• Saturated vapor: A vapor that is about to condense.

• Saturated liquid–vapor mixture: The state at which the liquid and vapor phases
coexist in equilibrium.

• Superheated vapor: A vapor that is not about to condense (i.e., not a saturated
vapor).
T-v diagram for the heating process of water
at constant pressure
• A Temperature-Volume diagram for
the heating process of water at
constant pressure is a representation
of how the temperature and specific
volume of water change as heat is
added while keeping the pressure
constant.
• This diagram helps illustrate the
behavior of water in a situation where
pressure remains unchanged, such as
in an open vessel, where the
surroundings maintain a constant
• Pressure Remains Constant (Isobaric Process): In this specific
scenario, the pressure on the water remains constant throughout the
heating process.
• Heating Process: As heat is added to the water, its temperature
increases. The specific volume (volume per unit mass) of water also
increases as it expands when heated.
• Phase Transitions: If the heating process continues, water will
eventually reach its boiling point (100 degrees Celsius at standard
atmospheric pressure).
• At this point, it starts to transition into a gaseous state (vapor). While
this phase transition occurs, the temperature remains constant, as the
added heat is used for the phase change, not to increase the
temperature.
• Therefore, you'll see a horizontal line representing this constant
temperature (the boiling point) in the vapor phase.
• Phase Change Line: The phase change line (also known as the
vaporization line) on the T−v diagram is typically slightly inclined,
indicating the increase in specific volume during vaporization while
maintaining a constant temperature.
Summary
• In summary, in a T−v diagram for the heating process of water at
constant pressure:
• A horizontal line at the boiling point represents the phase transition
from liquid to vapor, with a constant temperature.
• The overall trend is a diagonal line from the initial liquid state to the
final vapor state, indicating an increase in specific volume as the
water is heated while maintaining constant pressure.
Applications
• This diagram helps engineers and scientists understand and analyze
processes where pressure remains constant, such as in open systems,
and is valuable for designing and optimizing various engineering
applications like power generation and heat exchangers.
Reminder of Isochoric, Isobaric etc???
1. Isochoric Process (Constant Volume):
In an isochoric process, the volume of a substance remains constant. That is, the
substance does not change its volume during the process.
2. Isobaric Process (Constant Pressure):
In an isobaric process, the pressure of a substance remains constant. The substance can
change its volume and temperature, but the pressure does not change.
3. Isothermal Process (Constant Temperature):
In an isothermal process, the temperature of a substance remains constant. During
such a process, both pressure and volume may change to maintain a constant
temperature.
4. Adiabatic Process (No Heat Transfer):
An adiabatic process is characterized by the absence of heat transfer to or from the
system. In this process, the substance may change its pressure, volume, and