Brayton Cycle, Jet Engine Cycles and

Parametric Analysis of Ideal Gas

Turbine Engine Cycles

Chapter 4
Brayton Cycle
 Ideal Brayton cycle

 Variants of Brayton cycle

 Actual/real Brayton cycle

Brayton Cycle
 The Brayton cycle was proposed by George Brayton
in 1870 for use in reciprocating engines.
 Modern day gas turbines operate on Brayton cycle
and work with rotating machinery.
 Gas turbines operate in open-cycle mode, but can be
modeled as closed cycle using air-standard
assumptions.
 Combustion and exhaust replaced by constant
pressure heat addition and rejection.
Ideal Brayton cycle

 The Brayton cycle consists of four internally

reversible processes:
 1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor)
 2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition
 3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
 4-1 Constant-pressure heat rejection
Ideal Brayton cycle
Ideal Brayton cycle
Ideal Brayton cycle
 The thermal efficiency of the ideal Brayton cycle
under the cold air standard assumptions becomes:
Ideal Brayton cycle
 Substituting these equations into the thermal efficiency
relation and simplifying:

 The thermal efficiency of a Brayton cycle is therefore a

function of the cycle pressure ratio and the ratio of
specific heats.
Actual/Real Brayton cycle

 Actual Brayton cycles differ from the ideal cycles

in all the four processes.
 The compression process and expansion processes
are non-isentropic.
 Pressure drop during heat addition and heat
rejection.
 The presence of irreversibilities causes the above
deviations.
Actual/Real Brayton cycle

 Actual Brayton cycle T-s diagram

Actual/Real Brayton cycle
 The deviation of actual compressors and turbines from the
isentropic versions can be accounted for by using the
isentropic efficiencies.

 Where, 2a and 4a are the actual states at the compressor and

turbine exit and 2s and 4s are the corresponding isentropic
states.
Actual/Real Brayton cycle
 As a result of non-isentropic compression and
expansion, the compressor needs more work than the
ideal cycle and turbine generates less work.

 Isentropic efficiencies reflect the amount of deviation

of the actual compression/expansion processes from
the ideal.

 Total pressure losses in the heat addition/rejection

processes also need to be considered.
Actual/Real Brayton cycle
 Other differences between ideal and actual Brayton
cycles
 Change of specific heats with temperature
 Heat exchanger effectiveness (in case of
regenerative cycles)
 Mass flow rate of fuel
 Combustion efficiency
 These parameters are often used in actual cycle
analysis.
Actual/Real Brayton cycle
 Variants of the simple Brayton cycle
 Reheating
 Intercooling
 Regeneration
 Actual cycles with the above will be different from the
ideal cycles in terms of the irreversibilities present.

 Isentropic efficiencies, total pressure losses, heat

exchanger effectiveness for each additional components
of the cycle.
Jet Engine cycles for Aircraft propulsion

 Jet Engine cycles for Aircraft propulsion

 Turbojet Engine
 Turbojet engine with afterburning
 Turbofan and its variants
 Turboprop and turboshaft engines
 Ramjet engines
Ideal cycle for jet engines

 All air-breathing jet engines operate on the Brayton

cycle (open cycle mode).
 The most basic form of a jet engine is a turbojet engine.
 Some of the parameters of a jet engine cycle are usually
design parameters and hence often fixed a priori: eg.
compressor pressure ratio, turbine inlet temperature
etc.
 Cycle analysis involves determining the performance
parameters of the cycle with the known design
parameters.
Ideal cycle for jet engines

Schematic of a turbojet engine and station numbering scheme

Ideal cycle for jet engines

 The different processes in a turbojet cycle are the following:

 a-1: Air from far upstream is brought to the air intake (diffuser)
 1-2: Air is decelerated as is passes through the diffuser

 2-3: Air is compressed in a compressor (axial or centrifugal)

 3-4 The air is heated using a combustion chamber/burner

 4-5: The air is expanded in a turbine to obtain power to drive the

compressor

 5-6: The air may or may not be further heated in an afterburner by adding
further fuel

 6-7: The air is accelerated and exhausted through the nozzle

Ideal cycle for jet engines

Ideal turbojet cycle (without afterburning) on a T-s diagram

Ideal cycle for jet engines
 Afterburning: used when the aircraft needs a substantial
increment in thrust. For eg. to accelerate to and cruise at
supersonic speeds.

 Since the air-fuel ratio in gas turbine engines are much

greater than the stoichiometric values, there is sufficient
amount of air available for combustion at the turbine exit.

 There are no rotating components like a turbine in the

afterburner, the temperatures can be taken to much higher
values than that at turbine entry.
Ideal cycle for jet engines

 Ideal turbojet cycle with afterburning on a T-s diagram

Turbofan engine

 Propulsion efficiency is a function of the exhaust velocity to flight speed

ratio. FTVair 2
 propulsive  
 m jetV jet2 m airVair2  V jet
   1
 2 2  V air


 This can be increased by reducing the effective exhaust velocity.

 In a turbofan engine, a fan of a larger diameter than the compressor is

used to generate a mass flow higher than the core mass flow.

 This ratio is called the bypass ratio,

 Turbofan engines have a higher propulsion efficiency as compared with

turbojet engines operating in the same speed range.
Ideal turbofan engine

 Schematic of an unmixed turbofan engine and station numbering scheme

Ideal turbofan engine
 The different processes in an unmixed turbofan
cycle are the following:
 a-1: Air from far upstream is brought to the air intake
(diffuser)
 1-2’: Air is decelerated as is passes through the diffuser
 2’-3’: Air is compressed in a fan
 2-3: Air is compressed in a compressor (axial or
centrifugal)
Ideal turbofan engine
 3-4: The air is heated using a combustion
chamber/burner
 4-5: The air is expanded in a turbine to obtain power
to drive the compressor
 5-6: The air may or may not be further heated in an
afterburner by adding further fuel
 6-7: The air is accelerated and exhausted through the
primary nozzle.
 3’-7’: The air in the bypass duct is accelerated and
expanded through the secondary nozzle.
Ideal turboprop and turboshaft engines

 Turboprop engines generate a substantial shaft power in

addition to nozzle thrust.
 In a turboprop engine, the advantages and limitations are
those of the propeller.
Ideal turboprop and turboshaft engines

 Turboshaft engines, generate only shaft power (these engines are used in
helicopters, the shaft power is used to drive the main rotor blade.
 Both turboprops and turboshafts have applications at relatively lower speeds.
 Turboprops and turboshafts usually have a free-turbine or power turbine to
drive the propeller or the main rotor blade (turbo shafts).
 Stress limitations require that the large diameter propeller rotate at a much
lower rate and hence a speed reducer is required.
 Turboprops may also have a thrust component due to the jet exhaust in
addition to the propeller thrust.
 In turbo shafts, however, there is no thrust component due to the nozzle.
Ideal ramjet engines

 Ramjet is the simplest of all the airbreathing

engines.
 It consists of a diffuser, combustion chamber

and a nozzle.
 Ramjets are most efficient when operated at

supersonic speeds.
 Ramjets do not need compressors and
consequently no turbines as well.
Ideal ramjet engine

Schematic of typical ramjet engine

Ideal ramjet engine cycle
 a-2: Isentropic
compression in the intake

 2-4: Combustion at
constant pressure
 4-7: Isentropic expansion
through the nozzle

Ideal ramjet cycle on a T-s diagram

Ideal ramjet engines

 In a ramjet, there are no compressors and turbines and

hence the analysis is simpler.

 Since ramjets depend upon the ram compression

without the use of compressors, ramjets cannot
generate static thrust.

 Therefore ramjets have to be taken to a sufficiently

high speed at which ramjets can start generating thrust
of its own
Cycle components and component performance

 Cycle components and component performance

 Intake
 Compressor/fan
 Combustion chamber
 Turbine
 Nozzle
Cycle components

 Jet engine cycle has several salient components

 Air intake/diffuser: decelerates air and delivers it to the

compressor
 Fan: present in turbofan engines, drives the bypass mass
flow
 Compressor: compresses ingested air to high pressure and
temperature
 Combustion chamber: fuel is added here, combustion results
in high temperature and pressure at turbine inlet
Cycle components
 Turbine: Combustion products are expanded through the
turbine, generates shaft power to drive the compressor

 –Nozzle: Turbine exhaust is further expanded through the

nozzle, generates thrust

 –Afterburner: used in afterburning turbojets, function

similar to combustion chamber
Air intake performance
 Inlet losses arise due to wall friction and shock waves
(in a supersonic inlet).

 These result in a reduction in total pressure.

 The flow is usually adiabatic as it flows through the

intake.

 Performance of intakes are characterized using total

pressure ratio and isentropic efficiency.
 Air intake performance

Va2/2cp

Toa=Ta+Va2/2Cp

Actual and ideal intake processes

To2s – Ta= ηdVa2/2Cp
Air intake performance
 Isentropic efficiency, ηd, of the diffuser is

Po2 / Pa = (To2s / Ta) γ/γ-1

Po2 / Pa = (1+ ηdVa2/2CpTa) γ/γ-1

M2 = V2/C2, C2 = γRT , Cp= γR/ γ-1

 This efficiency can be related to the total pressure ratio (πd) and Mach number
 Toa=Ta+Va2/2Cp , Toa/Ta =1+Va2/2TaCp =
Compressor/ fan performance
 Compressors are to a high degree of approximation,
adiabatic.

 Compressor performance is evaluated using the

isentropic efficiency, ηc
Compressor/fan performance

Actual and ideal compression process

Compressor/fan performance
 The isentropic efficiency is thus a function of the
total pressure ratio and the total temperature ratio.

 Besides isentropic efficiency, there are other

efficiency definitions, stage efficiency and
polytropic efficiency that are used in assessing the
performance of multistage compressors.
Compressor/fan performance
 The three efficiency terms can be related to one another
Combustion chamber performance

 In a combustion chamber (or burner), there are two

possibilities of losses, incomplete combustion and total
pressure losses.

 Combustion efficiency can be defined by carrying out

an energy balance across the combustor.

 Two different values of specific heat at constant

pressure: one for fluid upstream of the combustor and
the other for fluid downstream of the combustor.
Combustion chamber performance
Combustion chamber performance

 Total pressure losses arise from two effects: viscous

losses in the combustion chamber
 total pressure loss due to combustion at finite Mach
number

 Combustion efficiency is usually very high in gas

turbine engines.
 In real cycle analysis both these parameters are used.
Turbine performance

Actual and ideal turbine processes

Turbine performance

 The flow in a turbine is also assumed to be adiabatic, though

in actual engines there could be turbine blade cooling.

 Isentropic efficiency of the turbine is defined in a manner

similar to that of the compressor.
Turbine performance
Nozzle performance
Nozzle performance

 The flow in the nozzle is also adiabatic.

 However losses in a nozzle could occur due to

incomplete expansion (under or over-expansion).

 Friction may reduce the isentropic efficiency.

 The efficiency is defined by

Afterburner performance

 Afterburner is thermodynamically similar to a

combustion chamber.

 The performance parameters for an afterburner is thus

the combustion efficiency and the total pressure loss.

 In case of engines with afterburning, the

corresponding performance parameters for an
afterburner needs to be taken into account.
Mechanical efficiency

 Mechanical efficiency is sometimes used to account for the loss or

extraction of power on that shaft.

 Mechanical efficiency is defined as

 Mechanical efficiency is less than one due to losses in power that

occur from shaft bearings and also power extraction for driving
accessories like oil and fuel pumps.
Typical component efficiency
Parametric Cycle Analysis of Ideal Gas Turbine Engine
Cycle

 Parametric cycle analysis desires to determine how the engine

performance (specific thrust and fuel consumption) varies
with changes in the flight conditions, design limits,
component performance, and design choices

Design Inputs
 0 , t
1) Flight conditions: Po, To, Mo, c p ,
2) Design limits: (Tt) burner exit temperature
3) Component performance:
4) Design choices:
 Turbojet Engine Showing Stations and Component Notation

54
 Nomenclature
55

 = total or stagnation pressure ratio across component (d, c, b, t, a, n)

 = total or stagnation temperature ratio across component (d, c, b, t, a, n)


 1 2  1 2  1
Tt  T 1  M , Pt  P 1 M
2 2
Ideal Assumption and Definition

1) Inlet/Diffuser: d = 1, d = 1 (adiabatic, isentropic)

2) Compressor or fan: c = c(γ-1)/ γ , f = f (γ-1)/ γ

3) Combustor/burner or afterburner: b = 1, a = 1

4) Turbine: t = t (γ-1)/ γ

5) Nozzle: n = 1, n = 1
Tt0 Pt0 Define Total/static temperature and
 0  0 pressure ratios of the free stream
T0 P0
Tt4 defined the ratio of the burner exit temperature
 t to the ambient temperature
T0
Turbojet Summary

 t  Cycle analysis employing

FT 2
  o c t  1   M o general form of mass,
m o ao  1   o c  momentum and energy

FT 2   1   Turbine power = compressor

  
 t 1  
     1  Mo
  1    o c 
0 c

mo ao  power
Thrust per unit mass flow (non-dimensionalized by the ambient speed of sound) as
a function of design parameters and flight conditions
How do we tie in fuel flow, fuel energy?
 F 
M 0   1 T  Energy (1st Law) balance across burner
 overall   m 0 a0 
 t   c 0  , mo
ao speed of sound at free stream and Mo is Mach number at free stream, and is
mass flow air
 What Do We Do With These Expressions?
58
 How do we interpret the thrust expression?

FT 2  t 
  o c t  1   M o
m o ao  1   o c 

 Parameters are flight Mach number, Mo, compressor

temperature rise, c, and turbine entry temperature (combustor
exit temperature), t.

 Flight Mach number set by mission

 Turbine entry temperature set by level of technology and cost (can
think of this as a technology limit)
 Compressor temperature rise is design parameter
 METHODOLOGY (II)

59
 Write expressions for thrust

F  mo 1  f u7  u0   p7  p0 A7
For ideal expansion, p7  p0
 F  u7 
F  mo u7  u0     M 0   1
mo a0  u0 
But
 
FT

2
 o c t  1  t   M o
m o ao  1   o c 

 o c t  1  t
2  

U7 Ue  1   o c 
 
U0 U0 Mo
 Turbojet Trends

Plot of Non-Dimensional Thrust and Specific Impulse for Maximum Thrust Condition
Heating Value of Fuel = 4.3x10 7 J/kg, Specific Heat Ratio = 1.4, T 0=200K
5 10000
Max Non-Dim Thrust: Theta_t=6
4.5 Max Non-Dim Thrust: Theta_t=9 9000
Max Thrust Isp: Theta_t=6
4 Max Thrust Isp: Theta_t=9 8000

Specific Impulse, Maximum

Maximum Specific Thrust

3.5 7000

3 6000

Thrust, s
2.5 5000

2 4000

1.5 3000

1 2000

0.5 1000

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Flight Mach Number
 Turbojet Trends

Plot of Thrust Normalized by Compressor Inlet Area and Ambient Pressure

vs. Flight Mach Number for Compressor Inlet Mach Number, M 2=0.5
30
Theta_t=6
Theta_t=9
25
Thrust Normalized by A2 and P0

20

15

10

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Flight Mach Number
 Turbojet Trends: Tt4 = 1600 K, pc = 25, T0 = 220 K

5.00 120%

4.50
100%
4.00

3.50
80%
Specific Thrust

3.00

Efficiency
2.50 60%

2.00
40%
1.50
Specific Thrust
1.00 Propulsive Efficiency 20%
Thermal Efficiency
0.50
Overall Efficiency
0.00 0%
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Mach Number
 Turbojet Trends: Tt4 = 1400 K, T0 = 220 K, M0 = 0.85 and 1.2

3.00 90%

80%
2.50
70%

2.00 60%
Specific Thrust

Efficiency
50%
1.50
40%

1.00 30%
Specific Thrust, M=0.85
Specific Thrust, M=1.2
Propulsive Efficiency, M=0.85
20%
0.50 Thermal Efficiency, M=0.85
Overall Efficiency, M=0.85
Propulsive Efficiency, M=1.2 10%
Thermal Efficiency, M=1.2
Overall Efficiency, M=1.2
0.00 0%
0 10 20 30 40 50
Compressor Pressure Ratio
 Turbojet Trends: Tt4 = 1400 K and 1800 K, T0 = 220 K, M0 = 0.85

4 80%

3.5 70%

3 60%
Specific Thrust

2.5 50%

2 40%

1.5 30%

1 Specific Thrust, Tt4=1400K 20%

Specific Thrust, Tt4=1800 K
Propulsive Efficiency, Tt4=1400 K
Thermal Efficiency, Tt4=1400 K
0.5 Overall Efficiency, Tt4=1400 K
Propulsive Efficiency, Tt4=1800 K
10%
Thermal Efficiency, Tt4=1800 K
Overall Efficiency, Tt4=1800 K
0 0%
0 10 20 30 40 50
Compressor Pressure Ratio
Turbofan with Two Stream of Exit
 Turbofan Summary

 t   2  Two streams:
FT

2
 o c t  1
 


 Mo   
 0 f  1  M 0 
Core and Fan Flow
m ao  1   o c    1 

Turbine power = compressor + fan power

 2 
FT
 1     0 f  1  M 0  Exhaust streams have same velocity: U6=U8

mao   1 

 FT 


  1   
2 
  1 2
 t
  
  0  1  M 0 
Maximum power, tc selected
 m ao  max   1  1    to maximize tf
   
Turbofan Trends
Non-Dimensional Thrust vs. Flight Mach Number
qt=6, To=200 K (PW4000 Series, b ~ 5-6)
Higher b of interest in range of Mo < 1 and lower b of interest for supersonic transport
16
Bypass Ratio = 1
14 Bypass Ratio = 5
Bypass Ratio = 10
12 Bypass Ratio = 20
Non-Dimensional Thrust

10

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Flight Mach Number, M0
 Turbofan Trends
Non-Dimensional Thrust vs. Flight Mach Number
qt=6, To=200 K (PW4000 Series, b ~ 5-6)
Higher b of interest in range of Mo < 1 and lower b of interest for supersonic transport
16 Plot of Non-Dimensional Thrust and Specific Impulse for Maximum Thrust Condition

Bypass Ratio = 1
Heating Value of Fuel = 4.3x107 J/kg, Specific Heat Ratio = 1.4, T0=200K
5 10000
Max Non-Dim Thrust: Theta_t=6
4.5 9000
Bypass Ratio = 5
Max Non-Dim Thrust: Theta_t=9
14 4
Max Thrust Isp: Theta_t=6
Max Thrust Isp: Theta_t=9 8000

Specific Impulse, Maximum

Maximum Specific Thrust
3.5 7000
Bypass Ratio = 10
3 6000

12 Bypass Ratio = 20

Thrust, s
Non-Dimensional Thrust

2.5 5000

2 4000

1.5 3000

10 1 2000

0.5 1000

0 0

8
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Flight Mach Number

6 Improvement over turbojet:

4 – 2.4 → 66% at Mach 1
4 8 – 3.3 → 142% at Mach 0

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Flight Mach Number, M0
Turbofan Trends

Propulsive Efficiency vs. Flight Mach Number

qt=6, To=200 K
1

0.9

0.8
Propulsive Efficiency

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3
Bypass Ratio = 1
0.2 Bypass Ratio = 5
Bypass Ratio = 10
0.1 Bypass Ratio = 20
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Flight Mach Number, M0
Tutorial on Ideal Cycles and Component

 Problem # 1
A Brayton cycle operates with a regenerator of 75%
effectiveness. The air at the inlet to the compressor is
at 0.1 Mpa and 30oC , the pressure ratio is 6.0 and the
maximum cycle temperature is 900oC. If the
compressor and the turbine have efficiencies of 80%
each, find the percentage increase in the cycle
efficiency due to regeneration.
Tutorial on Ideal Cycles and Component
Tutorial on Ideal Cycles and Component
Tutorial on Ideal Cycles and Component
Tutorial on Ideal Cycles and Component
Tutorial on Ideal Cycles and Component

 Problem # 2
A gas turbine operating at a pressure ratio of
11.314produces zero net work output when 473.35
kJ of heat is added per kg of air. If the inlet air
temperature is 300 K and the turbine efficiency if
71%, find the compressor efficiency.
Tutorial on Ideal Cycles and Component
Tutorial on Ideal Cycles and Component
Tutorial on Ideal Cycles and Component

 Problem # 3
An aircraft flies at a Mach number of 0.75 ingesting
an airflow of 80 kg/s at an altitude where the
ambient temperature and pressure are 222 K and 10
kPa, respectively. The inlet design is such that the
Mach number at the entry to the inlet is 0.60and
that at the compressor face is 0.40. The inlet has an
isentropic efficiency of 0.95. Find (a) the area of
the inlet entry (b) the inlet pressure recovery (c) the
compressor face diameter.
Tutorial on Ideal Cycles and Component
Tutorial on Ideal Cycles and Component
Tutorial on Ideal Cycles and Component
Tutorial on Ideal Cycles and Component
Tutorial on Ideal Cycles and Component

 Problem # 4
A turbojet engine operates at an altitude where the
ambient temperature and pressure are 216.7 K and
24.444 kPa, respectively. The flight mach number
is 0.9and the inlet conditions to the convergent
nozzle are 1000 K and 60 kPa. If the nozzle
efficiency is 0.98, the ratio of specific heat is 1.33,
determine whether the nozzle is operating under
choked condition or not. Determine the nozzle exit
pressure.
Tutorial on Ideal Cycles and Component
Tutorial on Ideal Cycles and Component
Tutorial on Ideal Cycles and Component

 Exercise Problem # 1
A Brayton cycle with two stages of compression and
two stages of expansion has an overall pressure ratio
of 8.0. Air enters each stage of the compressor at
300 K and each stage of the turbine at 1300 K.
Determine the thermal efficiency (a) with no
regenerator (b) with an ideal regenerator (c) if
compressor and turbine have 80%efficiency, no
regenerator.
 Ans: (a) 35%, (b) 69.6 %, (c) 26 %
Tutorial on Ideal Cycles and Component

 Exercise Problem # 2
In a gas turbine plant, the air at the inlet is at 27oC,
0.1 MPa. The pressure ratio is 6.25and the
maximum temperature is 800oC. The turbine and
compressor efficiencies are 80%each. Find (a) the
compressor work per kg of air (b) the turbine work
per kg of air (c) heat supplied per kg of air and (d)
the cycle efficiency.
 Ans: (a) 259.4 kJ/kg, (b) 351.68 kJ/kg (c) 569.43
kJ/kg (d)16.2 %
Tutorial on Ideal Cycles and Component

 Exercise Problem # 3
An aircraft is flying at a Mach number of 0.8 at an
altitude where the ambient static pressure is 40 kPa.
If the diffuser pressure recovery is 0.9, determine
the isentropic efficiency of the diffuser.
 Ans: 0.738
Tutorial on Ideal Cycles and Component

 Exercise Problem # 4
The nozzle of a turbojet engine develops a thrust of
590 Ns/kg. The aircraft is flying at 240 m/s. The
pressure and temperature at the nozzle entry are
1.284 kPa and 993 K, respectively. If the ratio of
specific heat is 0.33, determine the nozzle
efficiency. The nozzle can be assumed to be
operating under choked condition.
 Ans: 0.95