Chapter Three

Elements of Graph
Theory
Fikre Bogale

Addis Ababa University

Mathematics Department

January 23,
2023

Fikre Bogale 1/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory
Outline
•Outline
• Introduction
• Definitions and Examples of a Graph Matrix
Representations of a Graph Isomorphic
Graphs
• Path and Connectivity of Graphs Special
Types of Graphs
• Graph Coloring
Fikre Bogale
2/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory

Introduction
Graph Theory is a branch of mathematics that deals
with arrangements of certain objects and relationships
between these objects.
Graph Theory is broadly classified into two:
nondirected
graphs and directed graphs (digraphs).
Graph Theory, is an old subject with many model
applications, which has numerous applications to such diverse
areas as computer sciences, engineering, linguistics and
management science.
Graphs are discrete structure consisting of vertices and
edges that connect these vertices.
There are several different types of graphs that differ with
respect to the kind and number of edges that can connect
a pair of vertices. Fikre Bogale
3/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory

Definition and Examples of a Graph
Definition
A Graph G is a pair (V , E ) of sets where
A set V = V (G ) whose elements are called
vertices, points or nodes of G
A set E = E (G ) called edges of G .

Edge is a line segment or arc which connecting either

one or two vertices, called its endpoints. The edge e
connecting vertices u and v is denoted by e = {u, v} or
e = uv , then u and v are said to be the endponts of e.
Graphs are represented pictorially by drawing
dots(or circles) for the vertices and joining two dots
if the corresponding vertices form an edge.
Fikre Bogale
4/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory

Example
Let V = {a, b, c, d} be set of vertices. Then the following
are examples of Definition
graphs with fourand Examples of a
vertices.
Graph

Fikre Bogale 5/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory
Definition and Examples of a Graph
Definition
An edge whose starting and ending vertex is the same is called
loop.

Definition
Two vertices vi and vj are said to be adjacent if there exists
an edge between (connecting) them.

Definition
Two edges ei and ej are said to be adjacent if they have
a common vertex (endpoint).

Definition
An isolated vertex is a vertex which is not adjacent to
any vertex. A vertex which Fikre
isn’tBogale
connected to any 6/59
vertex. Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory
Definition and Examples of a Graph
Definition
An edge e is incident with a vertex v if v is an endpoint of
the edge e.

Definition
If there exist more than one edge between the same pair of
vertices, then the edges are called parallel (or multiple)
edges.

Definition
The number of vertices in a graph G (V , E ) is called the
order
of graph and denoted by |V | or |G|.
The number of edges in a graph G (V , E ) is called the
Definition
size of a graph and denoted by |E | or 1G 1.
7/59

Fikre Bogale Chapter

Definition and Examples of a Graph
Definition
An edge e is incident with a vertex v if v is an endpoint of
the edge e.

Definition
If there exist more than one edge between the same pair of
vertices, then the edges are called parallel (or multiple)
edges.

Definition
The number of vertices in a graph G (V , E ) is called the
order
of graph and denoted by |V | or |G|.

Definition Fikre Bogale 7/59

The number of edges in a graph Chapter
G (VThree ) isofcalled
, EElements the
Graph Theory
Definition
The degree of a vertex vi in a graph G is the number of
edges having the vertex vi as an end point (meeting at vi )
and denoted by deg (vi ).

Example:Let V = {v1, v2, v3, v4, v5} be set of vertices and

E = {e1, e2, e3, e4, e5, e6} be set of edges. Consider the
graph

Fikre Bogale 8/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory
Graph
Theory
Then from the above graph we have
The order |G| of G is 5 and the size 1G 1 of G is 6.
v1 and v2, v2 and v4, v4 and v3 are adjacent vertices.
e1 and e2, e1, e2 and e3, e4, e5 and e6 are adjacent
edges.
e1 is incident with v1.
e1 and e2, e4, e5 and e6 are parallel (multiple) edges.
deg (v1) = 2, deg (v2) = 3, deg (v3) = 3, deg (v4) = 4
and
deg (v5) = 0.
v5 is an isolated vertex.

A vertex is said to be even if its degree is even number and

Fikre Bogale 9/59
odd if its degree is odd number. A vertex of degree zero is
Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory
Types of
Graphs
Definition
A graph G without both loop and parallel edges is called
simple graph.

Definition
A graph G which consists of parallel (multiple edges) is
called a multi graph

Definition
A graph G is said to be Pseudo graph if it has a loop.

Definition
A simple graph with an edge between every two
distinct vertices is called a complete graph.
Fikre Bogale 10/59
Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory
Examples on Types of Graph

Example 1: Consider the following

graphs

and G2 are simple graphs. Moreover the

The graphs G1

graph
G2 is complete, but G1 is not complete graph.

Fikre Bogale 11/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory
Types of
Graphs

The graph G4 is complete, but G3 is not complete graph

because it is not simple graph. The graph G3 is a multi-
graph.
Note
A complete graph with n vertices is denoted by Kn.

The Graph G2 can be denoted by K4 and G4 by K3.

Fikre Bogale
12/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory

Types of
Graphs

The graph G5 is pseudo graph, but not simple graph.

Because it has loop at the vertex v1.
deg (v1) = 4, deg (v2) = 2 and deg (v3) = 2.
Fikre Bogale
13/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory

The Handshaking
Lemma
Let |E | denotes the number of edges of a graph G
with n v , v , · · · , v . ThenPn deg (v ) = 2|
vertices 1 2 n i
i =1
E|
The lemma follows from the fact that if we add the degrees
of all the vertices, every edge will be counted twice, since
each edge is incident to two vertices.
Corollary
In any graph G , the number of vertices of odd degree is
even.

Example
1 How many edges are there in a graph with 10
vertices each has degree 4.
2 If a graph G has 8 edges with 2 vertices of degree 4
each and all others are of degree 2 each, and then find
number of vertices |V
Fikre Bogale
the 14/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory

Solution
1 Let |E | be number of edges and each vertices has
degree
4. Then 10
I ; I ;
2|E| = 10 deg (vi ) = 4 = 4(10) = 40 ⇒ e =
20 i =1 i =1

2 Let k be the number of vertices with degree 2,

then
4(2) + 2(k) = 2(8) = 16 ⇒ k = 4

Hence, there are |V | = 6 vertices in the graph.

Definition
Let G = (V , E ) be a graph with V = {v1, v2, · · · , vn}.
The degree sequence of G is a non-decreasing sequence of
the degrees of the verices. Fikre Bogale
15/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory

Note
The sum of degree of vertices of a graph must be even.
Is there a graph with degree sequence 2, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7?

Definition
A degree sequence is said to be graphic if it is a
degree sequence of a simple graph.

Definition
A graph is said to be regular if all its vertices have
equal degree. If the degree of each vertex is d , then we
call the graph d -regular graph (regular of degree d ).

Note
Every complete graphs are regular graphs, but regular
graphs may not be complete.
Fikre Bogale 16/59
Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory
Regular and Complete
graphs

Graphs G and H are regular graphs. Moreover, G is

a complete graph, but H not.

Fikre Bogale 17/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory
Matrix Representation of
Graphs
Graphs can be represented by two different types of
matrices:
1 Adjacency matrix- a matrix that describes the
adjacency relationships between vertices of a graph.
2 Incidence matrix- a matrix that describes the
incidence relationships between edges and vertices of
a graph.
Adjacency Matrix
Suppose G is a graph with n vertices and suppose the
vertices have been ordered, say {v1, v2, · · · , vn}. Then the
adjacency matrix A = [aij ] of the graph G is an n × n
matrix defined by
m, if there are m edges joining vi and j
aij = f
v otherwise
0,
Fikre Bogale
18/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory

Example
1 Write the adjacency matrix of the
graphs

(a) (b)
2 Drawthe graphs the adjace ncy matrix
with 1 1 1 3 0 2
1 0 0 1  3 0 1 1
(a) 0
 0 0 1  (b)
 1 1 2

1 1 1 1 0 0 
2 1 2 0
0 
Fikre Bogale
19/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory

Subgraph of a Graph
Definition
A graph H is called a subgraph of a graph G , written H ⊆
G , if V (H) ⊆ V (G ) and E (H) ⊆ E (G ). If H ⊆ G but H
/= G , we call H a proper subgraph of G . If H is a
subgraph of G , then G is called the super graph of H.
A spanning subgraph of G is a subgraph that contains
all vertices of G .

Definition
Let G = (V , E ) and let V t ⊆ V . The subgraph of G
induced by V t, denoted G [V t], is the graph H = (V t, E t)
where, for every x, y ∈ V t, xy ∈ E t if and only if xy ∈ E .
We say
H = G [V t] is an induced subgraph of G . The subgraph
of G obtained by deleting Fikre t
is G [V \ V t], which is
V Bogale
24/59
usually witten as G − V . If V t = {v}, it is common to
t
Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory
Example: Draw the subgraphs of a given
graph

Solution: The following are sub-graphs of the given

graph.

Fikre Bogale 25/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory
Isomorphic Graphs
Definition
A simple graphs G1 = (V1, E1) and G2 = (V2, E2) are
isomorphic, written G1 ∼= G2, if there is one-to-one and on to
function f from V1 to V2 with the property that a and b are
adjacent in G1 iff f (a) and f (b) are adjacent in G2, for all
a and b in V1.
Example: Show that the graphs G = (V1, E1) and
H = (V2, E2) are isomorphic.

Solution: The function f with f (u1) = v1, f (u2) = v4,

Fikre Bogale 26/59
f (u3) = v3 and f (u4) = v2 is one-to-one correspondence.
Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory
Graph
Theory
There are different points to check whether the two graphs
are isomorphic or not, using invariant conditions such as
number of vertices, number of edges and degree of vertices.
Remark
Two simple isomorphic graphs must have
1 equal number of vertices
2 equal number of edges
3 corresponding vertices
must have equal
Finally we can check by using adjacency matrix, if the
degree.
adjacency matrix of the two graphs are the same, then we
can say the two graphs are isomorphic.
Fikre Bogale
27/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory

Examples of non-Isomorphic
Graphs
Example: Show that the graphs G and H are not
isomorphic.

Solution: Both G and H have five vertices and six edges.

However, H has a vertex of degree one, namely, e, whereas G
has no vertices of degree one. It follows that G and H are
not isomorphic.
Fikre Bogale 28/59
Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory
Path and connectivity of a graph
Definition
Let v0 and vn be two vertices in a graph G . A path of length
n from v0 to vn is a sequence of vertices vi and edges ei of
the form
v0e1v1e2 · · · vn−1envn
where each edge ei is incident with the vertices vi−1 and vi

Note
If the graph is simple, the path is unique and is
denoted by just listing the vertices along the path v0v1
· · · vn−1vn.
A simple path from v0 to vn contains no repeated
vertices. Length of path depending
Fikre Bogale on the number of
29/59

edges. Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory

Path and connectivity of a graph
Given the path P = v0e1v1e2 · · · vn−1envn. Then
v0 is called the initial and vn is the terminal vertex of
P. The path is said to be closed if v0 = vn.
The path is said to be open v0 /= vn.
P is called simple path if all the vertices are distinct.
P is called a cycle if it is a closed simple path( i.e. all
the vertices are distinct except v0 and vn). A cycle of
length n is is called an n-cycle and is denoted by Cn.
P is called a trial if all edges are
distinct. A loop is a cycle of length 1.
A simple path of length ≥ 1 with no repeated edges
and whose end points are equal is called a circuit.
Fikre Bogale
30/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory

Path and connectivity of a graph
Example: Consider the
graph

Take the following sequence of

vertices.
α = (v4, v1, v2, v5, v1, v2, v3, v6)
β = (v4, v1, v5, v2, v6)
γ = (v4, v1, v5, v2, v3, v5, v6)
δ = (v4, v1, v5, v3, v6)
P = (v4, v1, v2, v3, v5, v4) Fikre Bogale 31/59
Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory
Then we can discuss about the following results
α is an open path from v4 to v6, but not a cycle and
not a trial as well.
β is not a path since there is no edge connecting v2
and
v6 in the graph.
γ is a trial(no edge is used twice) but not a cycle.
δ is a simple path as well as a trial between v4 and v6,
but not the shortest path between v4 and v6.
The shortest path between v4 and v6 is v4v5v6 which
has length 2.
The sequence p is a circuit of length 5.
Two vertices u and v in G are said to be connected
if there is a (u, v )-path in G .
Fikre Bogale 32/59
Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory
Connectivity of a
graph
Definition
A graph G is called connected if there is a path between
any two vertices of the graph. Otherwise it is
disconnected.

Example
Consider the following graphs

The first is connected, but the second one is

disconnected.
Fikre Bogale
Because in the second graph, no path between v1 and v4. 33/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory

Special Types of Graphs
Definition
A simple graph G = (V , E ) is called bipartite if V is
partitioned into two disjoint set of vertices V1 and V2 such
that each edge in a graph G connects a vertex in V1 and a
vertex in V2. By a complete bipartite graph we mean
each vertex of V1 is connected to each vertex of V2, this
graph is denoted by Km,n where m is the number of vertices
in V1 and n is the number of vertices in V2. Note that |E
(Km,n)| = mn.

Note
Two V 1 ∩V
sets = V2 are partition of a set V if
V12 and
1

2 ∅ = V1 ∪ V2
V
Fikre Bogale
34/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory

Examples of bipartite
graphs
Consider the graphs and check whether they are bipartite
or
not

(a)

(b)
Fikre Bogale 35/59
Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory
Examples of bipartite graphs

(c)

(d
) Fikre Bogale 36/59
Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory
Solution
From (a), the graph has V = {v1, v2, v3, v4, v5, v6} as
the set of vertices. Then we can partitioned V into
V1 = {v1, v2, v3} and V2 = {v4, v5, v6} such that
each edge of the graph connects in V1 and V2.
Hence, the graph is bipartite graph.
Graphs from (b) and (c) are Not bipartite
From (d), the graph has V = {v1, v2, v3, v4} as the set
of vertices. Then we can partitioned V into V1 = {v1,
v4} and V2 = {v2, v3} such that each edge of the
graph connects in V1 and V2. Hence, the graph is
bipartite graph.

Theorem
A graph with at least two vertices is bipartite if and only if
it contains no odd cycles.
Fikre Bogale
37/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory

Special Types of Graphs
Complete Graphs: A complete graph on n vertices,
denoted by Kn, is the graph such that every vertex in G
is connected to every other vertex in G .
Empty (Null) Graphs: The empty graph on n
vertices, denoted by Nn, is the graph of order n and no
edges.
Regular Graphs: A graph G is regular if every vertex
has the same degree. G is said to be regular of degree
r (or r -regular) if deg (v ) = r for all vertices v in G .
Complete graphs of order n are regular of degree n −
1, and empty graphs are regular of degree 0.
Complement of a graph: The complement of a
graph G is denoted by G is a graph with V (G ) = V
(G ) but uv ∈ E (G ) if and only if uv ∈/ E (G ).
A ∼
simple
Fikre Bogale
graph G is said to be self complementary if
G = G.
38/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory

Eulerian and Hamiltonian
Graphs
Introduction
Can we travel along the edges of a graph starting at a
vertex and returning to it by traversing each edge of
the graph exactly once?
Similarly, can we travel along the edges of a graph
starting at a vertex and returning to it while visiting
each vertex of the graph exactly once?
The first question asks whether a graph has an Euler
circuit, while the second question asks whether a
graph has a Hamilton circuit.
Definition
An Eulerian circuit in a graph G is a simple circuit
containing every edge of G . An Eulerian path in G is
a simple path containing every edge of G
Fikre Bogale 39/59
Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory
Eulerian and Hamiltonian
Graphs
Example: Which of the following graphs have an Euler
circuit? Of those that do not, which have an Euler
path?

Solution: The graph G1 has an Eulerian circuit, for

example,
aecdeba. Nether of the graphs G2 or G3 has an Eulerian
circuit (Verify). However, G3 has an Euler path namely,
Fikre Bogale
acdebdab. 40/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory

Eulerian and Hamiltonian
Graphs
Theorem
A connected graph G with at least two vertices has an
Euler circuit if and only if each of its vertices has even
degree.

A graph that contains an Eulerian circuit is called an

Eulerian graph.
Definition
A simple path in a graph G that passes through every vertex
exactly once is called a Hamilton path, and a simple circuit
in a graph G that passes through every vertex exactly once is
called a Hamilton circuit. A graph G is called
Hamiltonian graph if it admits a Hamiltonian cycle.
Fikre Bogale
41/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory

Remark: a graph with a vertex of degree one
cannot have a Hamilton circuit, because in a
Hamilton circuit, each vertex is incident with two
edges in the circuit.
Example: Which of the following simple graphs have
a Hamilton circuit or, if not, a Hamilton path?

Solution:G1 has a Hamilton circuit: a, b, c, d, e, a.

There is no Hamilton circuit in G2 because G2 has a
vertex of degree one, namely, a, but G2 does have a
Hamilton path, namely, a, b, c, d . G3 has neither a
Hamilton circuit nor a Hamilton path (Verify).
Fikre Bogale 42/59
Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory
Trees and Forests

Definition
1 A graph T is called a tree if T is connected and T has
no cycle.
2 A forest G is a graph with no cycles; hence the
connected components of a forest G are trees.
3 A graph without a cycle is said to be cycle-free
(acyclic) graph.
4 A tree consisting of a single vertex with no edges is
called the degenerate tree.
5 A loop is a cycle of length one, then a tree is a loop
free graph.

Fikre Bogale
43/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory

Tree and Forests
Example

Eg. Differentiate the following graphs as trees and

forests.

Fikre Bogale 44/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory
Solution
G1 is a degenerate tree, since the graph has only
single vertex.
The graphs G1, G2 and G3 are connected with no
cycles, then they are trees.
G4 is a forest not a tree, since it is not connected.

Note
1 A connected graph with n vertex is called a tree if it
has exactly n − 1 edges.
2 In each tree T , there are some vertices of degree
1. These vertices (of degree 1) are called leaves.
3 Every tree T with at least one edge has at least
two leaves.
4 The edges of a tree T are called
branches. Fikre Bogale
45/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory

Tree and
Forest

Theorem
Let G be a graph with n > 1 vertices. Then the following
are equivalent.
1 G is a tree,
2 G is cycle-free and has n − 1
3 edges,
G is connected and has n − 1
edges.
Example
A tree has 4 vertices of degree 3 and 3 vertices of degree 2.
The remaining vertices have degree 1. Find the total
number of vertices in the tree.

Fikre Bogale
46/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory

Tree and
Forest
Solution
Sol. Let n be the number of vertices of the
tree.
Degree of vertex 3 2 1 Total
No. of vertices 4 3 n-7 n
Sum of degrees 12 6 n-7 18+(n-7)

Then from Hand Shaking Theorem, we have

18 + (n − 7) = 2|E|

And in a tree for n vertices we have n − 1 edges.

Then

18 + (n − 7) = 2(n − 1)

∴ There are 13 vertices andFikre

6 Bogale
of them are of degree 47/59
Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory
Tree and
Forest
Definition
A spanning tree of a connected graph G is acyclic
connected subgraph of G which contains all the vertices of G
.

Example:Find the spanning tree of the graph G .

Solution: The following are some spanning trees of the

graph
G.

Fikre Bogale
48/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory

Tree and
Forest

Note
For any connected graph G , we can find a spanning tree of
G
by1 any of the following
Cutting-down methods.
method: we start by choosing any
cycle in G and remove one of its edges-(i.e destroying
a cycle containing this edge). We repeat this procedure
until no cycle is left in the resulting graph.
2 Building-up method: we select edges of G one at a
time in such a way that the selection of edges does not
create a cycle. Repeat this procedure until all the
vertices of G are included in the resulting graph.

Fikre Bogale
49/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory

Tree and
Forest
Example: From the connected graph G develop spanning
tree using the above two methods.

Solution: From the above graph G

Using Cutting-down method, remove the edges
VY (destroying the cycle VWYV )
ZY (destroying the cycle
VWYZV ) YX (destroying the
cycle WXYW )
Now, there is no cycle left and this procedure gives
the first spanning tree Fikre
of G .
Bogale 50/59
Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory
Tree and
Forest
Using Building-up method, choose the edges VZ, ZY ,
YX
and XW one at a time. Then this choice of edges:
Includes all the vertices of G
Does not create a cycle
Hence, the second spanning tree of G is obtained by
this method.
Therefore the resulting graphs are:

Fikre Bogale 51/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory
Planar
Graphs
Definition
A planar graph G is a graph that can be drawn on a
plane without any edges crossing, and such a drawing is
called a planar representation of the graph in the plane.
A graph is non-planar if no plane drawing of G exists.
Note that there exist planar as well as nonplanar graph. In
Figure 1, a planar graph and two of its plane
representations are shown. Note that all trees are planar as
are also cycles.

Figure: Planar graph K4 with two plane embeddings of K4.

Fikre Bogale
52/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory

Examples of Planar
Graphs
K1,n and K2,n are planar graphs for all n.
A complete graph K5 and a complete bipartite graph K3,3
are non-planar.(Exercise draw)
Definition
A planar representation of a graph G divides the plane into
a set of regions (faces), where one of them has infinite
area and is called the infinite region (face).

Example: G has 7 faces, where f0 is the infinite face.

Fikre Bogale 53/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory
Euler’s Planar
Formula
Definition
The degree of a region(face) d (f ) is to be the number
of edges bounding the face f (cut edges are counted
twice)
Each edge appears twice as an edge L of a boundary and
so
if F is the set of faces of G , f d (f ) = 2|E
then
Example: ∈Ff3 (G
G has 4 faces f0, f1, f2 and )|
with
d (f0) = 10, d (f1) = 8, d (f ) = 3, d (f ) = 1.

Fikre Bogale 54/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory
Euler’s Planar
Formula
Theorem (Euler’s Formula)
Suppose a connected planar graph G has |V | vertices, |
E|
edges and |F | faces. Then |V | − |E | + |F | = 2.

Example: Verify Euler’s Formula

Solution: |V | = 4, |F | = 4, |E
|=6 Fikre Bogale 55/59
Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory
Properties of Planar
Graphs
Example: Verify Euler’s Formula

|V | = 10, |F | = 7, |E | = 15 ⇒
|V | − |E | + |F | = 10 − 15 + 7 = 2
If a connected planar graph G has |E | edges and |V
|
vertices, then 3|V | − |E | ≥ 6.
A complete graph Kn is a planar if and only if n <
5. Every planar graph has a vertex of degree ≤ 5.
A complete bipartite graph Km,n is planar if and only
Fikre Bogale 56/59
if Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory
Graph Coloring (Vertex
coloring)
Definition
A vertex coloring of a simple graph is the assignment of
a color to each vertex of the graph. A vertex coloring is
called proper coloring if it assigns different colors to
adjacent vertices.
Note that the term k-coloring refers to proper
colorings with k colors. G is said to be k-colorable if
there is a proper k-coloring of its vertices. Example:

Fikre Bogale 57/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory
 Graph Coloring (Vertex
coloring)
Definition
The minimum number of colors needed to properly color a
given graph G is called the chromatic number of G , and
it is denoted by χ(G ).

1 Let G be a simple graph. The following are

a) eqiuvalent:
χ(G )=2
b) G is bipartite
c) Every cycle in G has even
2 length
Let G be a simple graph whose maximum degree is
∆(G ), then χ(G ) ≤ ∆(G ) + 1.
Exercise What is the chromatic number of the following
graphs
K3, K4, K5, Kn, Cn? Fikre Bogale 58/59
Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory
End of Chapter 3

End
End of Chapter
chapter

Fikre Bogale 59/59

Chapter Three Elements of Graph Theory