Speciation

Evolution of Species

 Speciation – occurs when members of a

similar population no longer interbreed to
produce fertile offspring.
 There are three different ways that
organisms can become isolated from each
other to form a new species.
REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATING MECHANISMS

in order for one population to become very different

from another, they must be reproductively isolated,

this means that there will no longer be a free exchange

of alleles between the two populations

1st there are Prezygotic mechanisms that prevent

mating or fertilization
1. PREZYGOTIC MECHANISMS
a. Ecological Isolation

two populations do not exchange alleles with each other

because they are in different geographic places or at
different places within the same ecosystem
eg. cheetah and tiger do not meet because one is in
Africa and one in Asia

cheetah range tiger range

eg. Asiatic lion and Bengal tiger are both in northern
India, but lion is on savannah and tiger in forest
b. Temporal Isolation

two populations do not exchange alleles because

they are only available to exchange alleles at
different times of year or even of the day

eg. morning glory opens its flower at sunrise;

cactus opens its flowers at sunset
eg. purple finch mates in June so babies have access
to lots of berry seeds

goldfinch mate in August so that babies have

access to lots of thistle seeds
c. Behavioural isolation

two populations do not exchange alleles because they

do not respond to each others mating rituals

eg. male grey crickets rub legs at 25 times a second

male black crickets at 45 times a second the females of

each species only responds to the sound made by the
male of that same species
d. Mechanical Isolation

two populations do not exchange alleles because of

some physical barrier that prevents this

eg. many insects have modifications on their

exoskeletons such that the male and female parts
are a perfect 'lock-and-key' fit
eg. orchids are shaped so that only certain beetles can
reach the nectar and therefore pick up the pollen, that
beetle will the go to another orchid of the same type to
deposit the pollen
 e. Gametic isolation
two populations exchange sperm and eggs but
chemical markers prevent the eggs from being
fertilized by the 'wrong' sperm and so no alleles are
exchanged

eg. wind blows the pollen of corn

onto the flowers of milkweed, but
the pollen can not grow down
through the stigma because it does
not possess the correct enzyme
eg. clams and fish both shed eggs and sperm into the
same water, but the clam sperm can not penetrate the
fish eggs and vice versa, due to enzymes not being able to
eat through zona pellucida
 REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATING MECHANISMS
in order for one population to become very __________________from another, they must
be reproductively _____________, this means that there will no longer be a free exchange
of _________________ between the two populations
there are Prezygotic mechanisms that prevent ___________ or ______________
and Postzygotic mechanisms that prevent development of a ___________________

1. PREZYGOTIC MECHANISMS
a. Ecological Isolation
• two populations do not exchange ___________ with each other because they are in
different ______________ places or at different places within the same _____________
eg. _____________ and ___________ do not meet because one is in Africa and one in Asia
eg. Asiatic lion and Bengal tiger are both in northern India, but lion is on _______________
and tiger in _________________

b. Temporal Isolation
•two populations do not exchange alleles because they are only _______________ to exchange
alleles at different __________________ of year or ` even of the day
eg. morning glory opens its flower at __________; cactus opens its flowers at
___________
eg. purple finch mates in __________ so babies have access to lots of berry seeds;
goldfinch mate in ___________ so that babies have access to lots of thistle seeds
 c.Behavioural isolation
•two populations do not exchange alleles because they do not _______________
to each others ______________ rituals
eg. male grey crickets rub legs at ___________ times a second and male
black crickets at ________ times a second the females of each species only
____________ to the sound made by the male of that same species

d.Mechanical Isolation
• two populations do not exchange alleles because of some physical
____________ that prevents this
eg. many insects have modifications on their _______________ such that
the male and female parts are a perfect ________________ fit
eg. orchids are shaped so that only certain beetles can reach the _________ and
therefore pick up the ________, that beetle will the go to another orchid of
the same type to deposit the pollen
 e. Gametic isolation
•two populations exchange sperm and eggs but __________ markers prevent the eggs
from being fertilized by the ______________ sperm and so no alleles are exchanged
eg. wind blows the pollen of _______ onto the flowers of _________, but the pollen
can not grow down through the stigma because it does not possess the correct _________

eg. clams and fish both shed eggs and sperm into the same ________, but the clam
sperm can not penetrate the fish eggs and vice versa, due to_______________ not being
able to eat through zona pellucida

REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATING MECHANISMS # 11-17

Identify the type of reproductive isolating mechanism and EXPLAIN your choices.
11.Two snake type share an over-wintering burrow and eat the same diet, but mate at different
optimal temperatures.
12.Two grasshopper types are different in colour & so do not share the same predators, one
grasshopper eats tree leaves & one eats grass leaves.
13.Two turtles share a pond & general diet; but the female of one has a tall shell and the other a flat
shell; the male of the first has a hallow in its lower shell, the second male has a flat lower shell.
14.Two sparrows share a similar diet, winter in different places but share mating & breeding grounds
with one singing from the tops of trees and one from small bushes.
15.Two voles hibernate in different places, occasionally mate but the sperm & egg do not fuse
16.One short, bushy, red hibiscus flower type is pollinated by bees and a tall, white hibiscus is
pollinated by hummingbirds
17.One hawk type returns north in April and builds a new nest in mid-May, a second hawk type
returns north in mid-May and uses an old nest.
2. POST-ZYGOTIC ISOLATING
MECHANISMS
a. Zygotic mortality - even though the zygote is created,
it fails to develop to maturity
b. Hybrid inviability- even though the hybrid is
born, it does not live long or is not as healthy
c. Hybrid infertility - even though the hybrid is healthy
and vigourous, it is not able to reproduce

eg. donkey X horse  mule eg. lion X tiger  liger

healthy and strong but healthy & strong; but ligers are
mules are sterile sterile
 3. SPECIATION
when two populations become
completely isolated and no
longer exchange alleles, they
are said to have formed separate
species
a. Allopatric speciation - this is a situation in
which the two populations are geographically isolated
prior to them becoming separate species

the population
is isolated and
then the
changes occur
due to new
environments
Allopatric Specation
a.k.a Geographic Isolation
 Physical barriers can break large populations into
smaller ones.
b. Sympatric speciation - this is a situation
where the two populations remain in physical contact
with each other but still stop exchanging alleles and
become separate species

although not separated,

the population undergoes
different selection
pressures and changes
occur over time in allele
frequencies
Divergent evolution
results from two or
more species evolving
increasingly different
_phenotypes_ as a
result of Natural /
external selective
pressures
 this is what we
classically think of as
_evolution___: start
with one cat and over
time
 get tigers, lions,
leopards, cheetahs,
jaguars, pumas,
bobcats, ocelots etc.
 Convergent
Evolution
results from two unrelated
species being subjected to
similar selective pressure
with the result that they
produce similar phenotypes
(analogous or homologous?)

eg. sharks are

a cartilaginous fish, dolphins are
a mammal
but sharks
and dolphins both behave similar
to fish in the open ocean
as a result,
both have a similar body
morphology and similar type and
number of fins
Convergent
Evolution
in Australia there
never were any
placental mammals
so all of the niche
had to be filled by
marsupials,
many of whom
greatly
__resemble______
their placental
mammal counterpart
 2. POST-ZYGOTIC ISOLATING MECHANISMS
a. Zygotic mortality - even though the zygote is created, it fails to __________ to maturity
b. Hybrid inviability- even though the hybrid is born, it does not live long or is not as ____________
c. Hybrid infertility - even though the hybrid is healthy and vigourous, it is not able to ___________
eg. donkey X horse --> healthy, strong mule but mules are sterile
3. SPECIATION
when two populations become completely ____________ and no longer exchange
____________, they are said to have formed separate ______________
a. Allopatric speciation - this is a situation in which the two populations are geographically
___________ prior to them becoming separate species
b. Sympatric speciation - this is a situation where the two populations remain in _______________
with each other but still stop exchanging alleles and become separate species

I. DIVERGENT and CONVERGENT EVOLUTION

1. Divergent evolution

results from two or more species evolving increasingly different __________ as a result
of_______________ selective pressures
this is what we classically think of as _____________: start with one cat and over time
get tigers, lions, leopards, cheetahs, jaguars, pumas, bobcats, ocelots etc.

2. Convergent Evolution

results from two unrelated species being subjected to _____________ selective pressure
with the result that they produce ________________ phenotypes
eg. _____________ are a bony fish, ______________ are a mammal
but sharks and dolphins both ________________ fish in the open ocean
as a result, both have a similar body __________ and similar type and number of fins
eg. in Australia there never were any ______________ mammals so all of the niches
had to be filled by marsupials, many of whom greatly _______________ their
placental mammal counterpart
Rate of Speciation – Two
Hypotheses
 Gradualism – species originate through a gradual change of
adaptations.
Rate of Speciation – Two
Hypotheses
 Punctuated Equilibrium –
speciation occurs relatively
quickly with long periods of
genetic equilibrium in
between. first proposed by
Stephen Jay Gould and Niles
Eldredge in 1972
What about us?
HUMAN EVOLUTION
Evolution of humans

Objectives:

 How do we tell from fossils that an animal was bipedal

 How can we estimate the size of an animals brain?

 How do we tell what an animals diet was?

 Hominid – member of the family Hominidae

 Includes: Humans, Gorillas, Apes and Chimpanzees

 It was thought that humans were the only living Hominids but
biochemical evidence shows close similarities between us and
the great apes.

 Humans and apes share a common ancestor 5-7million years

ago
Brain size

 Soft parts of organisms decay.

 Brains fit snugly into skull.
 To find the size of the brain we find the volume inside the
skull
 CRANIAL CAPACITY
 How to tell what food an organism ate
Thin enamel –
Thick enamel – soft foods like
hard foods like fruits MICROWEAR-
nuts and seeds hard foods
leave more
scratches than
Apes have large canine
softer foods
teeth used to display TEETH
aggression not just
eating meat – cannot tell
Large jaws have bigger and
you about diet
stronger muscles – can eat
tough fibrous foods
Hominids have smaller
canines to allow for
chewing
Question

 Why have we found very few fossil remains of human

ancestors?

 Biochemical evidence suggests that humans are greatly

related to great apes, give an example of what this evidence
might be.