Research Methods in ACFN (AcFn 3111)

Chapter V : Data Sources and Collection

(Highly recommended text : Zikmund et al. (2009, 2012). Business Research Methods)

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Chapter outline

1. Introduction

2. Data classification and sources

3. Data measurement scales

4. Data collection methods

5. Data management issues

6. Questionnaire Design
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I. Introduction

 Data is the foundations of research.

 The quality of any investigation heavily depends on the quality of information or data
used.
 So, proper data collection, retention, and sharing are vital to the research enterprise.
 What is Data?
 Data refers to any group of facts, measurements, or observations used to make
inference about the problem of investigation.
 It can range from material created in a laboratory, to information obtained in
economic research, such as a filled-out questionnaire, video and audio recordings, or
photographs, etc.
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I. Introduction…

 We need to design strategies that would enable us to create meaningful and unbiased data,
 that will not waste resources, and
 that will appropriately protect human and animal subjects.
 When selecting data we need to be clear on:
 The data type (e.g., nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio measures).
 Samples ("frames") and sample size, instruments.
 Methodologies for collecting data, etc.
 And, to ensure high quality output, data gathering should be well planned.

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I. Introduction …

 Hence, we need to plan and define properly:

 The objective of the data collection exercise
 The kind of data (information) to be collected
 The source of the data
 The methods to be used to collect data
 This helps us to:
 determine the statistical techniques to be employed.
 avoid gathering of irrelevant information.

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I. Introduction …

 Quantitative approaches gather and work with data that is:

 structured – categorised or coded so that it can be counted;
 structured by the researcher – the researcher decides on both the questions that are
asked and the type of answer that can be given (often a choice between a set of categories
or answers).
 Qualitative approaches gather and work with data that is:
 constructed by the research participant in their own way;
 interpreted and structured by the researcher as part of the analytical process.

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II. Data classification & sources

 Sources of data can be grouped into

 primary and
 secondary sources of data
 Secondary Sources of data
 Secondary sources are those, which have been collected by other individuals or
agencies.
 Refers to already existing information which have previously been collected and
reported by some individual or organization for their own purposes.
 As much as possible secondary data should always be considered first, if available.
 Why reinvent the wheel if the data already exists!
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II. Data classification & sources…

 But, when dealing with secondary data you should ask:

 Is the owner of the data making them available to you?
 Is it free of charge? If not, how will you pay?
 Are the data in a format that you can work with? etc.
 A description of the sampling technique, i.e., how the sample was collected is also
necessary, etc.

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II. Data classification & sources…

 Sources of Secondary Data

 Secondary data may be acquired from various sources:
 Documents (reports of various kinds, books, periodicals, reference books
(encyclopedia), university publications (thesis, dissertations, etc.), policy documents,
statistical compilations, proceedings, personal documents (historical documents,
Data archives, etc.
 The Internet
 Advantages of Secondary data
 Can be found more quickly and cheaply.
 Most researches on past events or distant places have to rely on secondary data
sources.
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II. Data classification & sources…

 Limitations of Secondary data

 Authenticity(Legitimacy):
 genuine?
 credible?(trustworthy)
 representative?
 Completeness???
 The information often does not meet one’s specific needs.
 Definitions might differ, units of measurements may be different and different time
periods may be involved.
 Data could also be out of date.
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II. Data classification & sources…

 Primary Sources of Data

 These are data collected by the investigator (immediate user) for the 1st time.

 Two approaches to primary data collection:

 the qualitative approach and

 the quantitative approach

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III. Data measurement scales

 Rationale - knowing the level of measurement helps (or important):

 Decide how to interpret the data from the variable.

 Decide what statistical analysis is appropriate on the values that were assigned (e.g.

For instance, it makes sense to compute an average of an interval or ratio variable

but does not for a nominal or ordinal one)

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III. Data measurement scales…

 Levels of measurement
 The relationship between numerical values on a measure.
 There is a hierarchy implied in the level of measurement idea.
 At lower levels of measurement, assumptions tend to be less restrictive and data
analysis tend to be less sensitive.
 At each level up the hierarchy, the current level includes all of the qualities of the one
below it and adds something new.
 In general, it is desirable to have a higher level of measurement (such as interval or
ratio) rather than a lower one (such as nominal or ordinal).
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III. Data measurement scales…

Population - Parameter

Sample - Statistic

Variable - Variate

Attributes

Values

Nominal scale Ordinal scale - Interval scale – Ratio scale –

- name Rank no absolute zero absolute zero

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III. Data measurement scales…

 An attribute (variate) is a specific value on a variable. For instance, the variable sex or
gender has two attributes: male and female, or, the variable agreement might be
defined in a particular study as having five attributes:
 1 = strongly disagree
 2 = disagree
 3 = neutral
 4 = agree
 5 = strongly agree

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III. Data measurement scales…

 Variables aren’t always quantitative or numerical and it’s not necessary to assign
numbers for something to be a variable.
 Example: The variable gender consists of two values expressed in words: male and
female. These values of the variable gender can be called “text values” to
differentiate them from numeric values. However, if it is useful, quantitative values
like “1” for female and “2” for male can be assigned instead of (or in place of) the
words.

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III. Data measurement scales…

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III. Data measurement scales…

 Measurement levels (in decreasing order of precision)

1. A ratio variable (scale) is measured on a mathematical scale with equal intervals and a
fixed zero point
 Example: Journey time from London to Brussels was 2 hours in 2006, but 1½ hours in
2009 (so 25% faster)
2. An interval variable (scale) is measured on a mathematical scale with equal intervals and
an arbitrary zero point
 Example: It was 5oC yesterday, but 10oC today (so it was warmer by 5oC, but not twice
as warm because 0oC does not mean there is no temperature)
 As they are measured on a mathematical scale, ratio and interval variables are quantitative
variables.
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III. Data measurement scales…

3. An ordinal variable (scale) uses numerical codes to identify the order or rank of each
category
Example: Order of preference (1st , 2nd, 3rd); Rating scales (eg where 5 = strongly agree, 4
= agree, 3 = neutral, 2 = disagree and 1 = strongly disagree) can be treated as ordinal or
interval variables
4. A nominal variable (scale) uses numerical codes to identify named categories
Example: Geographical location where 1 = England, 2 = Wales, 3 = Scotland, 4 = Northern
Ireland
 As they are not measured on a mathematical scale, ordinal and nominal variables are
categorical variables.

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III. Data measurement scales…

 We can summarize our description of the four scales this way: If you can say that:
 One object is different from another, you have a nominal scale;
 One object is bigger or better or more of anything than another, you have an
ordinal scale;
 One object is so many units (degrees, inches) more than another, you have an
interval scale;
 One object is so many times as big or bright or tall or heavy as another, you have a
ratio scale.

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III. Data measurement scales…

 Other distinctions
1) A quantitative variable (i.e. all ratio and interval variables) can be
• A continuous variable where the data can take any value within a given range (e.g. time =
7 or 7½ hours)
• Or a discrete variable where the data can take only one of a range of distinct values (e.g.
Employees = 7 but not 7½)
2) A dichotomous variable has two groups and can be
• A categorical dichotomous variable with two categories (e.g. gender might be coded 1 if
female and 0 if not)
• Or a quantitative dichotomous variable known as a dummy variable (coded 1 if
characteristic is present and 0 if not)
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III. Data measurement scales…
 The measurement level of the variable determines which descriptive statistics are
appropriates
 Your choice depends on your research questions, which may also require the use of
inferential statistics Exploratory Descriptive Measurement
analysis statistics level
Frequency Percentage frequency Ratio, interval, ordinal, nominal
distribution
Measures of central Mean Ratio, interval
tendency Median Ratio, interval, ordinal
Mode Ratio, interval, ordinal, nominal
Measures of Range Ratio, interval
dispersion Standard deviation Ratio, interval
Measures of Skewness Ratio, interval
normality Kurtosis Ratio, interval

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III. Data measurement scales…

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III. Data measurement scales…

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III. Data measurement scales…

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III. Data measurement scales…

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III. Data measurement scales…

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III. Data measurement scales…

Exercise 1. Classifying variables (more than one answer may apply)

1.A ratio variable can be
 Categorical / Continuous / Discrete / Interval / Quantitative
2.A categorical variable can be
 Continuous / Dichotomous / Discrete / Interval / Nominal
3.A dummy variable can be
 Categorical / Continuous / Dichotomous / Quantitative
4.A quantitative variable can be
 Categorical / Continuous / Discrete / Interval / Ratio
5.A dichotomous variable can be
 Categorical / Continuous / Dummy / Interval / Quantitative
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III. Data measurement scales…

Exercise 1. Solution
1.A ratio variable can be: Categorical/ Continuous/ Discrete/ Interval/ Quantitative
2.A categorical variable can be: Continuous/ Dichotomous/ Discrete/ Interval/ Nominal
3.A dummy variable can be: Categorical/ Continuous/ Dichotomous/ Quantitative
nA quantitative variable can be: Categorical/ Continuous/ Discrete/ Interval/ Ratio
nA dichotomous variable can be: Categorical/ Continuous/ Dummy/ Interval/ Quantitative

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III. Data measurement scales…

Exercise 2. (Source: Practical Research by Leedy)

1.An environmental scientist collects water samples from streams and rivers near large
industrial plants and saves exactly 1 liter of water from each sample. Then, back at the lab, the
researcher determines the amounts of certain health-jeopardizing bacteria in each sample.
What measurement scale does the measurement of bacteria content reflect?

2.A market researcher is studying the relationship between (a) a country’s average annual
relative humidity levels and (b) the number of raincoats sold in the country during the year.
What scales underlie the two variables in this study?

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III. Data measurement scales…

Exercise 2…
3.A sports journalist in Spain wants to determine whether a football club’s fan club membership
correlates to the frequency with which the club has won in the Spanish football league during
the past five years. The researcher can easily obtain information about fan club membership
and wins from the club’s records. To simplify data collection, the researcher uses the following
coding scheme for the fan club membership: 1 = FC Barcelona, 2 = Real Madrid, and 3 = Atletico
de Madrid. What measurement scale(s) underlie (a) fan club membership and (b)
frequency of wins?

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III. Data measurement scales…

Exercise 2…
4.A new audio system was installed in a theatre that has a seating capacity of 500 people. The
seating area has been divided into three distinct areas: platinum, gold, and silver. At the end of
every show in one week, the audience was asked to fill out a questionnaire to determine the
effectiveness of the new audio system. What measurement scale does the researcher’s
coding scheme for the seating area represent?
5.An advertiser is studying the impact of a chocolate commercial on different age groups. He
puts the age groups in four categories: Group 1 includes 3- to 12-year-olds, Group 2 includes
teenagers aged 13 to 19, Group 3 includes adults aged 20 to 49, and Group 4 includes people
aged 50 and above. What kind of scale is the classification of age groups in this study?

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III. Data measurement scales…

Exercise 2…
6.A car manufacturer is studying sales patterns over five years of four different types of car that
vary in size and available utilities: hatchbacks (small cars with no trunk space), midsized
sedans (cars with limited trunk space and more utilities compared to hatchbacks), sedans
(proper trunk space and all utilities), and luxury sedans (big trunk space and luxurious
interiors). Based on size and available utilities, which measurement scale does the type of
car reflect?

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III. Data measurement scales…

Exercise 2…
7.A child psychologist is developing an instrument designed to measure the social etiquette of
small children. The instrument includes 25 statements; for example, “wishes elders when they
meet them,” “courteous to their sibling,” and “says please when asking for something or thank
you when someone has helped.” Parents must rate each of these statements on a 5-point scale
as follows: 0 never; 1 rarely; 2 sometimes; 3 often; 4 always
Parents who answer “never” to each of the 25 questions get the lowest possible score
of 0 on the instrument. Parents who answer “always” to each of the 25 questions get the highest
possible score of 100 on the instrument. Thus, scores on the instrument range
from 0 to 100. What kind of scale do the scores represent?
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IV. Data collection methods

 Data collection
 is the process of gathering and measuring information on the variables of interest.
 The data source could be:
 an area from where we can collect the data (i.e. geographic location),
 persons to be interviewed,
 an entity or organization,
 discussions to be observed, etc.).

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IV. Data collection methods…

 Although data collection methods may vary by discipline and data types, the emphasis on
ensuring accurate collection remains the same.
 Some of the consequences from improperly collected data may include:
 Inability to repeat and validate the study.
 Distorted and inaccurate findings.
 Wasted resources.
 Misleading other researchers.
 Harm to human participants and animal subjects.
 More importantly, poor data collection may cause harm to society when the results of the
flawed research are used to support public policy recommendations.
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IV. Data collection methods…

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IV. Data collection methods – Qualitative primary data

 Qualitative data collection approaches

 Qualitative data can be acquired from:
 case studies,
 Participant Observation
 Rapid appraisal methods,
 focus group discussions and
 key informant interviews, etc.

a) Case studies: involves a detailed investigation of a particular case.

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IV. Data collection methods – Qualitative primary data

 Qualitative data collection approaches …

b) Participant Observation: this is when a researcher attempts to observe in some way.
 It can be a good way of getting below the surface information and help to reveal complex
social processes.
 The researcher can play an overt or covert role.
 Example: the observation of consumer behavior in supermarkets.

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IV. Data collection methods – Qualitative primary data

 Qualitative data collection approaches …

c) Participatory Rapid Appraisal (PRA)
 PRA is a systematic expert observation usually by a multidisciplinary team.
 The PRA method:
 takes only a short time to complete,
 tends to be relatively cheap, and
 make use of more 'informal' data collection procedures.

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IV. Data collection methods – Qualitative primary data

 Qualitative data collection approaches …

d) Focus group discussions
 A FGD is a group discussion guided by a facilitator, during which group members talk
freely.

 The researcher creates a relaxed atmosphere and records in some way what is being
said (e.g. by use of a tape-recorder, video, note-taker, etc.).
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IV. Data collection methods – Qualitative primary data

 Qualitative data collection approaches …

 Mostly used to gather opinions, from a selected group of people on a particular and pre-
determined topic, e.g. consumer topic; political topic etc.
 About 10 people would be engaged in a discussion on the topic in an informal
setting.
 The researcher encourages free discussion, but is ready to intervene if necessary to
resolve group problems.
 The group of individuals are expected to have experience or opinion on the
topic.
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IV. Data collection methods – Qualitative primary data

 FGD…
 Its purpose is to obtain in-depth information on concepts, perceptions and ideas of a
group.
 Focus groups can be a useful way of finding out what the main issues and concerns of
any group are.
 It is more than a question-answer interaction.
 group members discuss the topic and interact among themselves with guidance from
the facilitator.

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IV. Data collection methods – Qualitative primary data

 FGD…
 Why use focus groups?
 The main purpose of a focus group research is to draw upon group’s attitudes,
feelings, beliefs, experiences and reactions.
 attitudes, feelings and beliefs may likely be revealed via interaction in social
gatherings.
 Compared to individual interviews, which aim to obtain individual attitudes, beliefs
and feelings, focus groups elicit a multiplicity of views.

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IV. Data collection methods – Qualitative primary data

 FGD…
 Strengths and weakness of FGDs
 It provides valuable information in a short period of time and at relatively low cost if
the groups have been well chosen, in terms of composition and number.
 But, their use as a research tool is limited when it comes to measuring the results
objectively.
 FGD should not be used for quantitative purposes, such as the testing of hypotheses
or the generalization of findings for larger areas
 Which require more elaborate surveys.
 In addition, the logistical complexity of focus group research is frequently cited as a
deterrent.
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IV. Data collection methods – Qualitative primary data

 FGD…
 Strengths and weakness of FGDs…
 In addition, it may be risky to use FGDs as a single tool because in:
 group discussions, people tend to center their opinions on the most common
ones.
 In case of very sensitive topics group members may hesitate to express their
feelings and experiences freely.
 Therefore, it is advisable to combine FGDs with other methods (in-depth interviews).

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IV. Data collection methods – Qualitative primary data

e) Key Informant Interview

 An interviewing process with opinion leaders such as elected officials, government officials,
and business leaders, etc.
 This technique is particularly useful for:
 Raising community awareness about socio-economic issues
 Learning minority viewpoints
 Gaining a deeper understanding of opinions and perceptions, etc.

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IV. Data collection methods – Qualitative primary data

f) Triangulation
 refers to the use of more than one approach to the investigation of a research question in
order to enhance confidence in the findings.
 Why use triangulation
 the purpose of triangulation is to obtain confirmation of findings through
convergence of different perspectives.
 By combining multiple methods, and empirical materials, researchers can overcome
the weakness or biases and problems that are associated with a single method.

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IV. Data collection methods – Qualitative primary data

 Taxonomy of triangulation…
1. Data triangulation: Involves gathering data at different times and situations, from
different subjects using different sampling techniques. Example: Using time series data.
2. Investigator triangulation: involves using more than one researcher to collect and
analyze the data. Example: organizing scientific experiments to replicate each other’s
work.
3. Theoretical triangulation: making explicit references to more than one theoretical
tradition to analyze data.
4. Methodological triangulation: combination of different research methods or different
varieties of the same method.
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IV. Data collection methods – Qualitative primary data

 Taxonomy of triangulation…
 Within method triangulation involves making use of different varieties of the same
method. Example: making use of alternative econometric estimators
 Between method triangulation involves making use of different methods. Example:
Using ‘quantitative’ and ‘qualitative’ methods.

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IV. Data collection methods – Quantitative primary data

 Quantitative Primary Data Collection Methods

• This method involves the collection of quantified data that can be subjected to
statistical treatment.
• Primary data may be collected through:
 Direct personal observation method, or
 Survey or questioning other persons,
 From a literature search, or
 by combining them.

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IV. Data collection methods – Quantitative primary data

 Quantitative Primary Data Collection Methods…

a) The Observation Method
• Observation includes all kinds of monitoring behavioral and non-behavioral activities.
 The investigator will make the observation personally by being guided by some
outlined questions.
• i.e. the investigator does not make inquiries but notes down the observation
himself/herself
 (e.g. evaluation of the class room teaching-learning process by investigators).

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IV. Data collection methods – Quantitative primary data
a) The Observation Method …
 Advantages
 It is less demanding and has less bias.
 One can collect data at the time it occurs and need not depend on reports by others.
 with this method one can capture the whole event as it occurs.
 Weakness of the Method
 The observer normally must be at the scene of the event when it takes place.
 But it is often difficult or impossible to predict when and where an event might occur.
 It is also a slow and expensive process.
 Its most reliable results are restricted to data that can be determined by an open or
surface indicator.
 Difficult to learn about past events and to gather information on intensions, attitudes,
opinions and preferences.
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IV. Data collection methods – Quantitative primary data

b) The Survey Method

 the most commonly used method in business.
 To survey is to ask people questions in a questionnaire.
 In a survey, a trained interviewer asks the questions and records responses on a
specially designed form.
 The form contains all the questions which would extract information from a
respondent.

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b) The Survey Method…

 Strength of the Survey Method
 It is a versatile or flexible method - capable of many different uses.
 More efficient and economical than observations -surveying using telephone or mail
is less expensive.
 If planned correctly, a survey makes it easy for people to participate.
 Same questions can be asked in several ways to double-check for accuracy and
consistency.

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IV. Data collection methods – Quantitative primary data
b) The Survey Method…
 Weakness of the Method
 The quality of information depends heavily on the ability and willingness of the
respondents.
 A respondent may interpret questions or concept differently from what was intended
by the researcher.
 A respondent may deliberately mislead the researcher by giving false information.
 People surveyed may not answer all questions.
 Low response rate is common.
 People can and do lie.
 Can’t test knowledge with mailed surveys.
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IV. Data collection methods – Quantitative primary data
b) The Survey Method…
 Main modes of administration of a survey

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IV. Data collection methods – Quantitative primary data

b) The Survey Method…

 Surveys could be carried out through:
 face to face personal interview
 telephone interview
 mail or e-mail, or by a combination.
i. Personal Face to face Interview
 It is a two-way conversion where one person interviews another person.
 interviewers ask the questions and mark the answers, either on paper or by typing
them onto a computer.

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IV. Data collection methods – Quantitative primary data
i. Personal Face to face Interview …
 Advantages of face to face Interview:
 enhances respondent participation,
 guiding the questioning process,
 answering the respondent’s questions,
 clarifying the meaning of questions and responses,
 probing, clarifying and motivating the respondent to complete the questionnaire,
 making sure that the questionnaire is answered in the pre-defined sequence and by
the respondent himself or herself.
 In addition, visual aids are possible in face-to-face interviews but not in telephone
surveys.
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IV. Data collection methods – Quantitative primary data

i. Personal Face to face Interview …

 Advantages of face to face Interview:
 The depth and detail of the information that can be secured far exceeds the
information secured from telephone or mail surveys.
 Interviewers can probe additional questions, gather supplemental information.
 Interviewers can make adjustments to the language of the interview because they
can observe the problems and effects with which the interviewer is faced.

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IV. Data collection methods – Quantitative primary data

i. Personal Face to face Interview …

 Limitations of the Method
 The method is an expensive enterprise – (e.g., locating respondents) – US$50-80.
 Hence, personal interviews are generally used only when subjects are not likely
to respond to other methods.
 susceptible to interviewers’ bias/mistakes
 Interviewer may also be reluctant to visit unfamiliar places.

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b) Telephone Interview
 Telephone can be a helpful medium of communication in setting up interviews.
 telephone numbers are picked, using some sampling technique, from a telephone
directory.
 Then the survey will be administered by calling and interviewing those who are
selected in the sample via telephone.
 Telephone surveys are the fastest method of gathering information from a relatively
large sample - generally last less than ten minutes.

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IV. Data collection methods – Quantitative primary data
b) Telephone Interview…
 Strengths of this method
 Moderate travel and administrative costs
 Faster completion of study
 Responses can be directly entered on to the computer
 Speed of administration; no geographic limitations; etc.
 Limitations of this method
 Respondents must be available by phone.
 The length of the interview period is short.
 limited in length and scope.
 those interviewed by phone find the experience to be less rewarding than a personal
interview.
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 Principles of Good Interviewing
• Have integrity, and be honest.
• Have patience and tact.
• Pay attention to accuracy and detail.
• Exhibit a real interest in the inquiry at hand, but keep your own opinions to yourself.
• Be a good listener.
• Keep the inquiry and respondents’ responses confidential.
• Respect others’ rights.

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c) Interviewing by mail (Solicited responses)
 Self-administrated questionnaires may be used in surveys.
 Questionnaires will be sent to respondents through their email or postal address.
 Respondents are expected to fill out the questionnaires and send them back the same
way.
 Self-administered surveys do not need interviewers.
 Respondents mark, write or type the answers themselves.
 They are ideal for large sample sizes, or when the sample comes from a wide geographic
area.
 Questionnaires must be easily understandable since there is no possibility for
respondents to ask how to mark answers or what a question might mean.
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c) Interviewing by mail (Solicited responses)

 Advantages
 Lower cost than personal interview
 Persons who might otherwise be inaccessible can be contacted (major corporate
executives)
 Less interviewer bias
 better protects privacy/anonymity

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c) Interviewing by mail (Solicited responses)…

 Disadvantages
 Non response error is high
 Large amount of information may not be acquired
 Literacy of the respondents is necessary, and the language of the respondents must
be known in advance.
 We have no control who responds or whom the respondent consults.
 We have no control for the bias originating from the self-selection process
(respondents choose freely whether they respond or not).

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d) Online Surveys (E-mail / Internet)

 Internet surveys allow researchers to reach a large sample more quickly.
 Sample size requirements can be met easily.
 Internet surveys are relatively new and little is known about the effect of sampling bias
in internet surveys.
 Advantages:
 Very inexpensive -saves inputting costs as well
 Respondents feel privacy

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d) Online Surveys (E-mail / Internet)…

 Disadvantages
 A sample of Internet users is representative only of Internet users, who tend to be
younger, better educated, and more affluent than the general population.
 Very biased toward wealthy and the young.
 The demographic profile of the internet user does not always represent the general
population.
 Therefore, before doing an e-mail or internet survey, carefully consider the effect
that this bias might have on the results.

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V. Data management issues…

 Storage and Protection

 Data must be stored securely both during a research project and after it ends.
 Risks like fire, water or other environmental damage, or common technical failures like
hard disk crashes, must be considered.
 So, make backup copies of the data periodically and store the copies in a secure location.
 Confidentiality
 refers to limiting information access and disclosure to authorized users- preventing
access by or disclosures to unauthorized persons.
 So you need to decide: who can handle which portion of data, at what point during the
project, for what purpose, and so on
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V. Data management issues…

 Integrity
 Integrity refers to the trustworthiness of the information.
 Researchers need to have sufficient skills to ensure the integrity of their data
collection efforts.
 For instance, data collection requires a rigorous and detailed recruitment and
training plan for data collectors.
 So, data should not be modified inappropriately, whether accidentally or
deliberately.

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VI. Questionnaire design

 The Art and Science of Asking Questions

…

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End of Ch. 05 – Next Ch. 06 (Part covered in Ch. 02)

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