Lecture 3

Lecture 03: Theory of Automata:2011
Theory of Automata
Regular Expressions
Defining Languages by Another

New Method
Regular Expressions
• Defining Languages by Another New Method
• Formal Definition of Regular Expressions
• Languages Associated with Regular Expressions
• Finite Languages Are Regular
• How Hard It Is to Understand a Regular Expression
• Introducing EVEN-EVEN
Theory Of Automata 3
Language-Defining Symbols
• As discussed earlier that a* generates Λ, a, aa, aaa, …

And
a+ generates a, aa, aaa, aaaa, …,
so the language L1= {Λ, a, aa, aaa, …} and L 2= {a, aa,

aaa, aaaa, …} can simply be expressed by a* and a+,
respectively.
a*and a+ are called the regular expressions (RE) for L1

and L2 respectively.
Plus Sign
• Let us introduce another use of the plus sign. By
the expression
x+y
where x and y are strings of characters from an
alphabet, we mean either x or y.
• Care should be taken so as not to confuse this

notation with the notation + (as an exponent).
Example
• Consider the language L={Λ, x, xx, xxx,…} of strings,
defined over Σ = {x}.
• We can write this language as the Kleene star closure of

alphabet Σ or L=Σ*={x}* .
• This language can also be expressed by the regular

expression x*
Example
• Similarly the language L={x, xx, xxx,…},

defined over Σ = {x}, can be expressed by the regular
expression x+
Example
• Now consider another language L, consisting of all

possible strings, defined over Σ = {a, b}.
This language can also be expressed by the regular

expression (a + b)*.
• Now consider another language L, of strings having

exactly one a, defined over Σ = {a, b},
• then it’s regular expression may be b*ab*.

Example
• Now consider another language L, of even length,

defined over Σ= {a, b}, then it’s regular expression may
be
((a+b)(a+b))*
• Now consider another language L, of odd length, defined

over Σ = {a, b}, then it’s regular expression may be
• (a+b)((a+b)(a+b))*
Or
((a+b)(a+b))*(a+b).
Example
• Consider the language, defined over Σ = {a , b} of words
having at least one a, may be expressed by a regular
expression
(a+b)*a(a+b)*.
• Consider the language, defined over Σ = {a, b} of words

having at least one a and one b, may be expressed by a
• regular expression
(a+b)*a(a+b)*b(a+b)*+ (a+b)*b(a+b)*a(a+b)*.
Example
Consider the language, defined over Σ ={a, b}, of words
starting with double a and ending in double b then its
regular expression may be
aa(a+b)*bb
•Consider the language, defined over Σ ={a, b} of words

starting with a and ending in b OR starting with b and
ending in a, then its regular expression may be
a(a+b)*b+b(a+b)*a
Remark
• It may be noted that a language may be

expressed by more than one regular
expression, while given a regular expression
there exist a unique language generated by that
regular expression.
12
Note
• It is important to be clear about the difference of
the following regular expressions:
• r1 = a*+b*
• r2 = (a+b)*
Here r1 does not generate any string of

concatenation of a and b, while r2 generates
such strings.
13
• Given the alphabet = {a, b}, suppose we wish to define the

language L that contains all words of the form one a followed by
some number of b’s (maybe no b’s at all); that is
L = {a, ab, abb, abbb, abbbb, …}
• Using the language-defining symbol, we may write

L = language (ab*)
• This equation obviously means that L is the language in which the

words are the concatenation of an initial a with some or no b’s.
• From now on, for convenience, we will simply say some b’s to
mean some or no b’s. When we want to mean some positive
number of b’s, we will explicitly say so.
Example
• Consider the language T over the alphabet
Σ = {a; b; c}:
• T = {a; c; ab; cb; abb; cbb; abbb; cbbb; abbbb;
cbbbb; …}
• In other words, all the words in T begin with
either an a or a c and then are followed by some
number of b’s.
• Using the above plus sign notation, we may
write this as
T = language((a+ c)b*)
Example
• Consider a finite language L that contains all the
strings of a’s and b’s of length three exactly:
L = {aaa, aab, aba, abb, baa, bab, bba, bbb}
• Note that the first letter of each word in L is
either an a or a b; so are the second letter and
third letter of each word in L.
• Thus, we may write
L = language((a+ b)(a + b)(a + b))
• or for short,
L = language((a+ b)3)
Example
• In general, if we want to refer to the set of all possible
strings of a’s and b’s of any length whatsoever, we could
write
language((a+ b)*)
• This is the set of all possible strings of letters from the

alphabet Σ = {a, b}, including the null string.
• This is powerful notation. For instance, we can describe

all the words that begin with first an a, followed by
anything (i.e., as many choices as we want of either a or
b) as
a(a + b)*
18
An important example
• The Language EVEN-EVEN Language of
strings, defined over Σ={a, b} having even
number of a’s and even number of b’s. i.e.
• EVEN-EVEN = {Λ, aa, bb, aaaa, aabb, abab,

abba, baab, baba, bbaa, bbbb,…}, its regular
expression can be written as
(aa+bb+(ab+ba)(aa+bb)*(ab+ba))*
19
20
Equivalent Regular Expressions

• Two regular expressions are said to be
equivalent if they generate the same language.
• Example
• Consider the following regular expressions
• r1 = (a + b)* (aa + bb)
• r2 = (a + b)*aa + ( a + b)*bb then both regular
expressions define the language of strings
ending in aa or bb.
21
Example
• The language of all words that have at least two a’s can
be defined by the expression:
(a + b)*a(a + b)*a(a + b)*
• Another expression that defines all the words with at

least two a’s is
b*ab*a(a + b)*
• Hence, we can write

(a + b)*a(a + b)*a(a + b)* = b*ab*a(a + b)*
where by the equal sign we mean that these two

expressions are equivalent in the sense that they
describe the same language.
Example
• Let V be the language of all strings of a’s and b’s in
which either the strings are all b’s, or else an a followed
by some b’s. Let V also contain the word Λ. Hence,
V = {Λ, a, b, ab, bb, abb, bbb, abbb, bbbb, …}
• We can define V by the expression
b* + ab*
where Λ is included in b*.
• Alternatively, we could define V by
(Λ + a)b*
which means that in front of the string of some b’s, we have
either an a or nothing.
Example contd.
• Hence,
(Λ + a)b* = b* + ab*
• Since b* = Λ b*, we have

(Λ + a)b* = b* + ab*
which appears to be distributive law at work.
• However, we must be extremely careful in

applying distributive law. Sometimes, it is difficult
to determine if the law is applicable.

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Lecture 03: Theory of Automata:2011

Defining Languages by Another

• Formal Definition of Regular Expressions

• Languages Associated with Regular Expressions

• Finite Languages Are Regular

• How Hard It Is to Understand a Regular Expression

• As discussed earlier that a* generates Λ, a, aa, aaa, …

a+ generates a, aa, aaa, aaaa, …,

so the language L1= {Λ, a, aa, aaa, …} and L 2= {a, aa,

a*and a+ are called the regular expressions (RE) for L1

• Care should be taken so as not to confuse this

• We can write this language as the Kleene star closure of

• This language can also be expressed by the regular

• Similarly the language L={x, xx, xxx,…},

• Now consider another language L, consisting of all

This language can also be expressed by the regular

• Now consider another language L, of strings having

• then it’s regular expression may be b*ab*.

• Now consider another language L, of even length,

• Now consider another language L, of odd length, defined

• Consider the language, defined over Σ = {a, b} of words

•Consider the language, defined over Σ ={a, b} of words

• It may be noted that a language may be

Here r1 does not generate any string of

• Given the alphabet = {a, b}, suppose we wish to define the

• Using the language-defining symbol, we may write

• This equation obviously means that L is the language in which the

• This is the set of all possible strings of letters from the

• This is powerful notation. For instance, we can describe

• EVEN-EVEN = {Λ, aa, bb, aaaa, aabb, abab,

Equivalent Regular Expressions

• Another expression that defines all the words with at

• Hence, we can write

where by the equal sign we mean that these two

• Since b* = Λ b*, we have

• However, we must be extremely careful in

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• then it’s regular expression may be bab.