Human Resource Development Ipmortant Notes

MBA-HRM Human Resource Development
UNIT - I
LESSON - 1
LEARNING OBJ ECTIVES
Introduction
The term learning means changes in our behavior, attitude, knowledge and skills.
In other wards we can say that through learning we can feel permanently
changes in our self. If we are not feeling any changes in our above skills then it
will not be called as learning. The learning is a type of reinforcement, which may
learn a change in behavior enduring by strengthening and intensifying certain
aspect of an individual behavior.
Learning may be described at the process of acquiring the ability to respond
adequately to a situation, which may or may not have been previously an
countered. After analysis, the term learning consist of the following contents:-
L - At length
E - It should be affective A
- It should be apparent R -
Relentless
N - Elimination of negative thoughts I
-
Implanting
N - Elimination negative
internalization.
G - Elimination of generalization
CONCEPT OF LEARNING OBJ ECTIVE
The term learning involves the following:-
Components of learning objectives:-
The learning objectives has the following components:-
AcroPDF - A Quality PDF Writer and PDF Converter to create PDF files. To remove the line, buy a license.
1. Audience- Audience is the target of learning objective and the audience

character.
2. Behavior - Behavior is expected from the learner to show the audience has
learn something from the instructor.
3. Condition-Under what condition will the learner be expected to demonstrate
his/her knowledge. It is the responsibility of instructor to create an
atmosphere of learning for grasping the memory from the learning
environment.
Main characteristics of good learning objective
1. The learning objective should identify a learning outcomes – The main

objective of learning is reflection. The objective needs to state what the
learner is to perform, not how the learn lesson.
2. The learning objective should be consistent with course goal – it is
necessary that the learning objective should be consistent with the course
goal. When objective and goals are not consistent two avenues of
approached will be available.
- Change the objective or

- Change the course goal
3. The learning objective should be precious:- Its some have difficulties to

strike a balance between too much and too little precious in an objective.
There should be a free line between choosing objective that reflects an
important and meaningful outcome of instructions and objective.
To make the objective of learning the affective steps are as under:-
- Starts class on schedule.

- Present material listed in lesson plans and follows the general outline.
- Use following traits and techniques while conducting instruction: flexibility,
spontaneity, provides empathy, and compassion uses good questioning
techniques, is an active listener, gets feed back, uses positive reinforcement,
and provide counseling.
- Facilitator directs and guides the learner towards finding the correct answer
to their questions, rather than being an answering service.
- Provide coaching.
- Demonstrates new or difficult material in manner that may be seen and
understood by the learners.
- Evaluates learner in the prescribed manner.
2
- Grades tests and distributes scores as required.

- Completes class roster and other form at end of training session and deliver
them to the training department.
- Completes all learning activities and required function, during allotted time
period.
TECHNIQUES OF MOTIVATION FOR ACHIEVING LEARNING

OBJ ECTIVE ARE AS FOLLOWS :-
Learning Objective and Techniques of Motivation
Knowledge, Understanding, application and creativity can be used as criteria for

selecting the appropriate techniques of motivation.
1) Knowledge Objectives:
This objective is achieved to develop the recall and recognition abilities

.it is the lowest learning objective and concerns with the environment of
objects. The reward, praise, punishment and reproof techniques of
motivation may be employed to achieve knowledge objective. The
concrete form of motivation is effective for this purpose.
2) Understanding objectives:
The understanding objective is realized by developing the abilities of

seeing relationship, discrimination, cite example and generalization, the
environment and content both are equally important for providing
appropriate learning experiences to the students. The praise, success,
punishment and failure techniques of motivation can assist in achieving
this objective.
3) Application objectives:
An application objective is achieved by developing the abilities of

reasoning, hypothesizing, inferring, and prediction. The perception and
expectancies of the students play the significant role. The success and
failure, cooperation and competition knowledge of results and attitude,
techniques of motivation can help in realizing the objective of
application.
1. Creativity objectives:
The creativity is the highest objective of the cognitive domain. This can
be achieved by satisfying the highest needs of a person and employing
internal motivation. The analysis, synthesis and evaluation or Judgment
abilities are developed for achieving this objective. The context is most
important and environment is least important. The ego environment and
self-motivation is essential for creativity. The level of aspiration, novelty
and attitude, techniques of motivation can be used for achieving
creativity objective.
DOMAINS OF LEARNING
The term domains of learning means classification, area and scope of learning.
The classification allows the teacher to be better able to organize instruction and
thereafter provides better structure and improved clarity. The main aim of
domains of learning that the students will be better able to achieve success if
they more clearly understand the structure of the instruction provided to them.
The types of domains of learning
The domains of learning are of three types:
1. Cognitive domains
2. Affective domains
3. Psycho domains
1. Cogitative Domains- The cogitative refers to an individual idea thoughts

knowledge interpretation, understanding etc. about himself and his
environments. The cogitative theory of learning assumes that the organism
learns the measuring of various objects and events and learned responses
depend upon the meaning assigned stimuli. In other views we can say that
the learner form a cognitive structure in memory, which preserves an
organize information about the various events that occurs in a learning
situation.
The cognitive theory recognizes the rol of an organism in receiving,

memorizing, restructuring and interpreting the stimulus and reaching to it.
4
At the end we can say that we understand about an individual cognitive

system, the better we are above to predict his behavior.
2. Affective domains – This domain is the area, which concern attitude, belief
and the entire spectrum of values and value system. The area is often
considered the more difficult domains in which we structure instruction.
The term values are show in embedded that they can be inferred from
people behavior and their expected attitude. What may ‘appear’ to be
strange behavior in an employee can make sense if managers understand
the value underlying that behavior? Value has an important influence on
the attitude, perception, needs and motives of people at work. Value
represents basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct is
permanently are socially preferable to an opposite mode of conduct. When
we rank individual values in terms of their intensity we obtain value
system of that person. All offers have a hierarchy of value that forms our
value system. This system is identified by the relative importance. We
assign to such value a freedom self respects, honesty, obedience, equity
and so on.
The value learnt can be divided into two broad categories:
- Terminal value
- Instructional value
The person learns and develops values because of the following factors:
Family factors
Social factors
Personal factors
FAMILY FACTORS - The factors influencing the process of

socialization of an individual is role of the family. The learning of social
behavior, values and norms come through these practices for example –
through rewards and punishment.
SOCIAL FACTORS – School has a major role to play in the
development of values. Through disciplines in school a child
learn desirable behavior important in the school setting, interaction with
teacher,
class mate and the other staff member in the educational institution make
the child inoculate values important to the teaching learning process.
PERSONAL FACTORS – Personal attributes such as intelligence, ability,
appearance and educational level of the person determines the
development of values for example one’s higher levels of intelligence may
result in faster understanding of values.
3. PSYCHO DOMAINS- this domains attempt to classify the coordination
aspects that are associated with movement and to integrate the cognitive
and affective consequences with bodily performance. The psycho domains
can be classified in to following 3 movements:-
Generic movement
Ordinative movement
Creative movement
GENERICE MOVEMENT - The movement are process, which facilitate the

development of charactories and affective pattern. These are exploratory
operation in which the learner receives are takes in awareness of the
movement and body movements as well as patterning the experienced and
demonstrated.
ORDINATIVE MOVEMENT – Learner are able to organize and process
skillful movement. They are able to adopt and refine skillful movement in
order to be able to solve task or performance required.
CREATIVE MOVEMENT – This is the highest level of the psycho domain. In
this form student are able to create or invent movements that will serve the
individual (personal) purpose of the learner.
LESSON-2
Methods of Learning:
The main focus of teaching is to facilitate learning. Where there is teaching

learning must be there. Teaching activities are designed to produce change in the
behavior of the learners. Therefore a new concepts of teaching-learning has
emerged out in the field of education. The concept of teaching is incomplete
without learning.
William H. Hurton (1958) has made an attempt to investigate the relationship
between teaching and learning and he gives the following reasons:
1. Teaching can be made effective by relating it to learning.

2. Teaching objectives can be identified in behavioural terms and appropriate
learning situations may be created to realize these objectives.
3. The appropriate teaching conditions or structures may be generated for
effective learning.
4. The effective teaching aids may be selected for creating learning situations.
5. The teaching strategies and tactics may be selected to achieve the optimal
objects of learning.
6. The concept of relationship of teaching and learning will be an aid to
understand the nature of teaching and teaching theories may be evolved.
7. The knowledge of the relationship will be helpful for teacher-educator to
produce effective teachers.
In the present environment methods of learning are as follow:-
1) Autocratic Style
It involves the following Strategies:

a) Lecture
b) Lesson Demonstration
c) Tutorial
d) Programmed Instructions
2) Per missive Style
It involves the following Strategies:
a) Question Answer
b) Heuristic
c) Discovery
7
d) Group Discussion
e) Role Playing
f) Brain Storming
g) Independent Study
Autocratic Style Strategies
1) Lectur e Style-
It is his oldest teaching method given by idealism philosophy lecture can be

used to realize the highest order to cognitive objective
Employees following Principles:
a) The content is pretend as whole.

b) The main stress is on presentation.
c) The students learn better through listening.
d) The subject content is correlated with other subjects.
e) The new knowledge is linked with student previous knowledge.
2.) Lessons Demonstration:

Traditional class room method which his used in technical schools and raining
Colleges. As a technique its is less autocratic than a lecture but considerably
permissive than a discussion. It is used foe achieving the psychomotor and
Cognitive Objectives.
a) The skill may be developed by imitation.

b) The perception helps in imitation.
3) Tutorial:
Considered as both autocratic and permissive type of learning. A lecture

strategy is followed by tutorials because individuals difficulties can not
solved in lecture. Tutorials are highly individualized type of

learning/teaching.
a) It considers the individual differences.

b) It establishing the rapport with learner.
c) It provides educational guidance.
d) It organizes remedial help to the learner.
Types of Tutorials
a) Supervision Tutorials:
In this type of tutorials students and teachers meaning are arranged

regularly. It stress on the mastery over the basic skills of scholarship.
b) Group Tutorials:
The teacher should have the background of social psychology and group
dynamics so that he can deal with group tutorials effectively in solving
their problems.
c) Practical Tutorials :
These tutorials are commonly used for both and individual basis to
achieve psychomotor skills in laboratory, workshop,
2) Programmed Instructions:
It is the new strategies of teaching. It has revolution the process of

teaching and Learning. It is also known as “Individualized Instructions”.
The responsive of the learned are controlled by the Programmer. The
learner does not get freedom to respond, but it provides an Opportunity to
each learner to pace according to his own capacity and ability.
Employees the following Fundamental Principles:

9
a) Principle of small steps

b) Principle of active responding.
c) Principle of immediate confirmation.
d) Principle of self-pacing.
e) Principle of student’s testing.
Per missive Style Strategies:
1) Question Answer:
It is developed by famous philosopher Socrates. He assumes that all

knowledge with in the learner and teacher has to unfold it. he further
assumed that teacher should present the Subject-Matter in such a way
that learner recognizes the truth and he can identify himself with it. He
has top identify the three phases of learning process. “Observation,
experience and testing”.
a) Theory of enfoldment: All knowledge with in the learner, teacher can not
teach any new knowledge to students
b) The knowledge can be emitted by linking the question wit his answers
2) Heuristic:
Heuristic means “Discovered /Investigate”. It is based on The assumption

that the learner should be told as little as possible and He should be
encouraged to learn himself as much as possible.
3) Discovery:
10
This strategy is developed by J.S.Burner. The Discovery and Heuristic are

used fro the same meaning but they are quite Different form one another. The
discovery strategies is used for teaching social subjects where as Heuristic
strategies is used for teaching science subjects. There is scope for direct
observations in the Heuristic, but Discovery provides the factual information
about the past events.
Employees follows the following principles of learning:
a) The learner remains active

b) The students learn with understanding and insight.
c) The organization of motives and values with in the individual
relevant.
d) The principles of assimilation as description are followed.
e) There is scope for divergent thinking, which leaves to inventive
solution of the problem.
4.) Group Discussion
There is no comprehensive definition of group discussion, but it

is considered as a democratic teaching strategies.
It is of two types:
a) By the teacher:
This type of discussion is more autocratic in style.
b) By the students:
In this situation, discussion is more permissive or

democratic in style
11
Employees following Principles
a) Principle of active participation.

b) Principle of freedom of work
c) Principle of group work and equal opportunity to ask question and
to answer them.
5) Role Playing:
It is also known as stimulated social skills training or teaching. It is most useful

for training institution to develop social skills. It is a better strategy than lesson
demonstration, because it provides as situation to the learner to perform the task.
6) Brain Storming:
It is based on assumption that a student can learn better in group rather than in
individual study. This strategy consists of a problem-solving situation in which
learners are assigning to a problem and they are asked to discuss any idea, which
come to their mind. The group is encouraged to provide even unusual
suggestions. They have to analyze and evaluate the workability of their own
suggestions of the problem.
7. Independent Study:
Independent study helps in developing student’s initiative, responsibility and
understanding for what they study. Its also known as “Project Work”. This study
more useful for a training program.
IMPORTANCE OF TEACHING TECHNIQUES INTRODUCTION
Teaching as conventionally understood by a traditional teacher is the ct of

disseminating information to the learner in the classroom. It is generally, equated
with telling. If we observe traditional classroom teaching we find that
12
either the teacher is delivering information or one of the students are silently
following him in their own textbooks. This probably is the concept of teaching
held by traditional teacher.
Teaching may consist of a description of those acts, teachers demonstrate that
reflect their commitments to a particular philosophy to education. We can
explain it from different angles.
Some explanations are as followed:
a) Teaching is communication between two or more persons who

influence each other by their ideas and learn something in the process
of interaction.
b) Teaching is to fill in the mind of the learner by information land
knowledge of facts for future use.
1) Teaching is a process in which learner, teacher, curriculum and other
variables are organized in a systematic way to attain some pre-
determined goal.
2) Teaching is to cause motivation to, learn.
According to Smith- Teaching is a system of actions to induce learning.
Teaching Techniques (for Higher Learning)
3) Conference Technique
4) Seminar Technique
5) Symposium Technique
6) Workshop Technique
7) Panel Discussion
Conference Technique
The conferences are organized to study the specific problems of nations, society,
religion, science and education. The objective of the conferences is usually broad
to develop cognitive and affective aspects. The objectives are determined
13
by the organization. For example: Teacher Education Association and all India
Educational Technology Association. The purposes of these organizations are
different.
Seminar Technique
A seminar as an Instructional Technique involves generating a situation for

group to have guided interaction among themselves on a theme, which is
generally presented to the group by one or members. The person who presents
the theme should have studied the theme thoroughly before hand. This would
mean selection of relevant material at its organization. The collected material is
put in the form of paper, which is circulated among the participants in advance
or before the paper reading. It provides the structure of the theme, to facilitate its
communication.
Thus, seminar is an instructional technique of higher learning which involves
paper reading on a theme and followed by group discussion to clarify the
complex aspects of the theme.
Symposium Technique
The word “Symposium” has several dictionary meanings. Firstly Plato has used
the term for “good dialogue” to present the views towards God. Another
meaning of the term is the intellectual recreation or enjoyment.
The recent meaning of the term is meeting of persons to discuss a problem or
theme. The symposium technique /forum serves as an excellent device for
informing an audience, crystallizing opinion and general preparing the listeners
for arriving at decision, policies, value, judgment or understanding.
The main purpose of the Symposium is to provide the understanding to the
students or listeners on theme or problem specifically to develop certain values
and feelings.
14
Wor kshop
Workshop is defined as assembled group of ten to twenty five persons who share
a common interest or problem. They meet together to improve their individual
and skill of a subject through intensive study, research, practice and discussion.
Panel Discussion
This technique first time was used by Herry A Ober in 1929.He organized a
discussion from small group to definite period for the audience. At the end of the
discussion audience had also participated. The important question was put by the
audience on the topic. The experts tried and answered the questions and certain
points are clarified, which were not included in the discussion. Several other
persons had used this technique. Generally this type of panel discussion is
organized on television and radio.
Importance of Teaching
1) It Includes the provision of desirable infor mation:
The human knowledge is going on increasing since the rise of civilization.

He has learnt all this by trail and error, insight and imitation. We should
provide desired information’s to the student in well organized from regarding
this store of knowledge, it saves time, also the pupils will not face any
difficulty in achieving knowledge.
2) Causes to Learn:
A goods teaching is not merely to impart information’s to the students, but it

is also arouse the will of self-learning in them. The teacher should explore
15
the interest, aptitudes, capacities, competencies, and need of the pupils and
guide them accordingly. From this point of view, the teaching should be so
much natural and interesting that the pupils get motivated for self-learning.
The good teaching is to provides assistance them for establishing the contact
with different subjects of curriculum and environment themselves.
Needs efficient Planning:
The pupils cannot be taught everything all the time. Various stages are meant
for achieving the different aspects of knowledge. Also pupils have different
interests, attitudes competencies and needs on the basis of individual
differences. So there must be some useful planning of teaching in view of the
above things.
Selective Idea
The human being is struggling continuously since he came on this earth. As a

result of his struggle, his knowledge-store is going on enriching day-by-day.
Such a explosion in knowledge cannot “be learnt in such a short time span
therefore, through teaching, the people should be told some selected and useful
things. In other words, disseminating selected knowledge is called good
teaching.
Provide opportunities for activities:
The pupil remains active by nature. This activeness is based upon his basic
instincts. Hence, each people perform desirable and undesirable activities under
the influence of his instincts. The teacher should study the pupil’s basics instinct
and direct these activities for purposefulness and useful directions.
Sympathetic Program
Psychology has proved that when the pupils gets involved in the emotional
disturbance while struggling mentally, his all mental powers cease to function
16
smoothly. From this point of view, successful teaching essentially requires

emotional stability and security.
Cooperative Approach
Teaching does not mean forceful imposition of knowledge in the pupil’s brain.
The teaching and learning process is an alive active process. Hence, the desirable
results can only be achieved when teaching is based on cooperation of the
teachers and the pupils.
Organization of Learning:
Marshall has written that the organization of learning means the unification of
all the component of teaching. Hence, the activities of teacher and pupils should
be unified. It is essential to include all task teaching methods and conditions in
these activities. In short good teaching is organization of learning.
Democratic environment
Modern ages are the age of democracy. Theses days, the real education is
considered to be that education which prepares the pupils for life by life. In the
light of this, we should’ prepare the pupils for democracy democratically. But to
achieve this objective, the teaching should be based on democratic ideals,
objectives, curriculum, and teaching methods. In short good teaching should be
democratic.
LESSON-3
INSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY
Introduction
The term technology implies the application of science to art. When we apply
the science of learning and communication to teaching we evolve a technology.
17
The interaction of physical sciences with education provides us with traditional

aids, tools, hardware such as paper ink books, radios, films, televisions and more
sophisticated modern hardware like computers, space satellites language
laboratories etc. Stoluraw (1963) argues that there are three major factors that
emphasize the linking of Instructional with technology:
The exploration world population.
The exponential rate at which new knowledge is being granted.
The changing science and technology of our current society.
MEANING OF INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
J.K. Galbirath has given two main characteristics of every technology, these
are:-
Systematic application of scientific knowledge to the practical task, and the

division of practical task into sections and subsections.
Any subject who meets with these two norms of the characteristics is called
Instructional Technology.
Instructional Technology, today is widely accepted as the application of systems

approach in the systematic design of learning system, and as a method or
approach combined with the appropriate and necessary media and material to
bring about improvement in teaching learning –evaluation process.
Technology should not be confused with teaching or instruction or education or
learning or engineering but it should be taken as a sum total of all such aspects,
which go long way in shaping the personality of the learner in a meaningful
context. It is an aggressive invention in education which has a promising future
18
in the of all those who are constantly engaged in the pursuit of knowledge
otherwise it will remain an Orwell Ian nightmare.
Definitions of Instructional Technology:
Robert A.Cox defines as -“Instructional Technology is the application of

scientific process to man’s learning conditions.”
E.E.Haden defines as – “Instructional Technology is that branch of educational
theory and practice concerned primarily with design and use of massages which
control the learning process.
Objectives of Instructional Technology
a) To determine the goals and formulate the objectives in the behavioral terms.
b) To analyze the characteristics of learner.
c) To organize the content in logical or psychological sequence.
d) To media between content and resources of presentation.
e) To evaluate the learners’ performance in term of achieving educational
objectives.
f) To provide the feedback among other component for the modification of
learners.
KINDS OF INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
Instructional Technology can be divided into following three components:-
 Behavioral Technology
 Instructional Technology
 Teaching Technology
Behavioral Technology
Behavioral Technology is an important component of educational technology. It

puts emphasis on the use of psychological principles in learning and teaching so
that the behavior of the teacher and pupils may be modified in accordance with
teaching objectives. Behavioral Technology intends to expand progress and
develop in the field of behavior and learning.
19
The contents of Behavioral Technology for bringing about the changes in the
behavior of teacher are the following:
Meaning and definition of the teacher-behavior.
Principles of teacher-behavior.
Observation method of teacher-behavior.
Analysis and Nature of teacher-behavior.
Evaluation and Norms of teacher-behavior.
Models of teacher-behavior.
Various techniques of developing teacher behavior such as:
Programmed Instructions,
T-Group training,
Inter action Analysis Techniques,
Simulated Social Skill Teaching,
Assumptions of Behavioral
Technology
1. Teacher’s behavior is social
and psychological.
2. Teacher’s behavior is
observable.
measurable.
modifiable.
5. Teachers are not in born only
they can be produced even.
Characteristics of Behavioral
Technology
6. Its basic function is

psychology.
7. Reinforcement and feedback
are emphasized in it.
8. The teaching acts are evaluated
from objective point of view.
9. It is more focused on
psychomotor objectives.
10.It is based upon software
approach.
11.It is more used in teacher’s
training institutions.
12.Its attention can be focused
upon individual differences of
pupil-teachers.
teaching but still there is much difference between these two. Instructions mean
communication of information. Other persons and methods than teacher can do
this. For example different type of audio-visuals aids can guide the students. The
correspondence course and Open University may accomplish the task of
instructions successfully through press and television. Actually instructional
technology is based upon Hardware Approach. It includes teaching material
prepared on the basis of machine like tap recorder, record player, televisions and
projector etc. With the help of this, large groups of students may be provided
with the knowledge in minimum time and expenses.
Thus, the instructional technology motivates learning process. The instructional
material is selected keeping in view the objectives. Simultaneously, various
methods, techniques, strategies and audio-visual aids are used for presenting the
lesson so that the objectives may be achieved in the end, the achievement of the
objective is evaluated if the objective is not achieved owing to any reason, then
again the decision regarding any proposed change is taken so that the desired
change in the pupils’ behavior may be brought about.
Assumptions of Instructional Technology
1. A pupils can learn according to his need and capacities.

2. A pupils can learn even in the absence of the teacher.
3. Reinforcement can be provided by using instruction continuously.
4. Learning objective can be achieved through instructional objectives.
5. The subject matter can be pan be divided into its various elements or
sections and each Section can be taught this independently through
this technology.
Characteristics of Instructional Technology
21
1. It is helpful in achieving cognitive objectives.

2. It can meet the shortage of effective teachers.
3. With its help, the pupils can learn according needs and speed.
4. it can control the individual differences.
5. Conditioned Response Theory of Learning is also used.
6. Analysis of content in depth is carried out in this technology, which
encourages optimism regarding the impressive regarding the impressive
presentation of the contents.
Teaching Technology
Teaching is an art. Teaching Technology makes this art easier, precise, Practical
and objective by using scientific principles. Teaching has two elements:
(i) Content, and

(ii) Classroom behavior or communication.
Teaching technology, include both contents and communication. Hence,
teaching technology includes both instructional technology and behavioral
technology. But neither does it add in itself only the, major aspects; i.e., neither
programmed instruction nor its studies only some contents like various principles
of teaching behavior, techniques of behavior developments and classroom
behavior models in behavior technology. Even the observation of Classroom
behavior, analysis, interpretation and evaluation considered the content of
teaching technology.
The learning system helps the teacher in making correct decision as well as
develops responsible professionalism. It makes necessary changes in the concept
of teaching, training of teacher, strategies and the tactics of teaching, functions
of the teacher as a manager etc.
Functions of a teacher in learning process
The functions of the teacher as a manager into the following four steps:
22
1. Planning
2. Organization
3. Leading
4. Controlling
Planning:
In this phase, the teacher analyses the content, determines, and defines the
learning objectives and writes these objectives in clear terms.
He performs three activities in this phase-
(i) Task analysis

(ii) Identification of teaching objectives
(iii) Writing learning objectives
In the words of I.K.Davies, “In teaching, planning is the works, a teacher does
to establish learning objectives”.
Organization:
In this phase, teacher creates an effective environment by selecting teaching

methods, strategies, tactics and essential aids. Acquiring proper experience pupils
gain learning objectives while living in such an environment.
Leading:
In this phase, the teacher motivates pupils so much at each and every step they
start showing interest in teaching and the learning objectives are achieved. In this
connection, I.K.Davis has written, “leading is the work a teacher does to
motivate,-encourage and inspire these students, so that they will readily achieve
the learning objectives”.
Controlling:
23
In this phase pre-determined and defined objectives of learning remain the same.
No change is brought about in these objectives. But the teacher observes the
context to which the organization and leading activities have achieved the pre-
determined objectives. To accomplish this great task, the teacher seeks the help
of various techniques of evaluation and measurement. He concludes that the
learning objectives have not been achieved, then he should bring necessary
changes in the activities of “organization” and “leading” phases.
Forms of Instructional Technology
Instructional Technology has the following three forms:
1) Instructional Technology-1 or Hardware Approach.

2) Instructional Technology-2 or Software Approach.
3) Instructional Technology-3 or System Analysis.
Instructional Technology-1 or Hardwar e Approach:
Hardware Approach is the application of physical science in education and

teaching in education with which the teaching process is being mechanized
gradually so that maximum pupils may be educated in minimum time at very
low cost. Instructional Technology includes cinema, gramophone, radio, tape
recorder, projector, computers etc all teaching machines the use of which makes
the teaching more and more effective in order to achieve the teaching objectives.
Instructional Technology-2 or Software Approach:
Software approach is also named as Instructional Technology or Teaching

Technology of engineering of Behavioral Technology not allowed the use of
engineering machines. Psychological principles of teaching and learning are
utilized so that desirable changes may be brought about in the behaviors of
pupils. If the machines are used this is done only to make the subject matter
24
effective. Hence the Educational Technology -2 is concerned with teaching

objectives in behavioral terms, principles of teaching, methods of teaching,
method of teaching and techniques, reinforcement of instructional system,
feedback devices and evaluation. It is tried to develop all three aspects i.e., input,
process and output.
Instructional Technology-3 or System Analysis:
System Analysis is also known as Management Technology has provided a

scientific basis to the decision-making regarding the problems associated with
administration, management, commerce, industry and army. Instructional
Technology-3 helps to study the problems of educational administration and
management in a scientific and conclusive way. Instructional Technology-3 helps
in developments of educational administration and formulation of instructional
out line. Educational Administration and Management can be made more
effective and less costly by using in educational system.
25
LESSON _ 4
Instr uctor Behavior
CONCEPT
The term instructor /teacher behavior defined as the behavior or activities of

persons as they go about doing whatever is required of teachers, particularly
those activities which are concerned with the guidance or direction of the
learning of others.
Theory of Instructor – Behavior is based on two postulates:
1) Teacher –Behaviors is a social behavior.

2) Teacher –behaviors is relative concept.
Assumptions of Teacher Behavior:
3) Teacher – behavior is a function of situational factors, other elements and

teacher personal characteristics.
4)Teacher Behavior is observable. This
assumption based on three postulates:
a) Teacher Behavior is
distinguishable.
b) Teacher behavior is quantifiable.(classifiable, quantitatively,
qualitatively.)
c) Teacher behavior revealed through overdoes behavior.
Types of Teacher Behavior:
5) Verbal Behavior
6) Non-Verbal Behavior
26
Verbal Behavior
Most of the classroom interaction between teacher and taught is generated by

verbal communication. The activities of mouth are the parts of verbal
behaviour.the verbal behavior includes lecturing, defining, explaining, clarifying,
encouraging, praising and accepting feeling and ideas of the student. The verbal
behavior of teacher concerns with cognitive and effective aspects.
Non – Verbal Behavior
A teacher uses some bodily actions, facial expressions that encourage or restrict
the pupil – participation in class - room teaching. its known as non-verbal
behavior of teacher. The non – verbal behavior is more effective than verbal
behavior.
Taxonomy of Teacher Behavior
Under this teaching the student – teacher simulated a particular activity or role
and they try to develop an identity with the actual classroom situations. The
whole simulated teaching programme becomes training in role perception and
role-playing. The handling behavioral problems and classroom are better
mastered through simulated teaching sessions.
Teacher Behavior includes four major dimensions:
1) A source dimension.
2) A direction dimension
3) A function direction.
4) A sign direction.
1) A source dimension – of teaching provide interaction of the relationship
of student and teacher at a basic level. Teaching is the interaction between
projector entity called teacher and receptor entities within a classroom
situation.
27
2) A direction dimension – The identification and classification of the

nature of receptor entities provide the direction dimension of teaching.
3) A function direction – The teacher has to perform certain tasks. These
tasks should be dealt with beliefs, attitudes, skills and processes of
instruction. The second task is to establish and maintain interpersonal
relationship among students in classroom. The third task is to facilitate
the learning process. These there tasks constitute the function dimension
of teaching.
4) A sign dimension - In order to observe behavior it should be
communicated in some way. The communication may require more than
one mode of expression in fulfilling a given function. The modes of
behavior make the sign dimension.
LESSON -5
ATTENTION VERSUS INVOLVEMENT ATTENTION /

CONCENTRATION
Attention is part of focus, concentration, a component of intelligence attention,

focus of attention can only last a few seconds (some tests suggested up to 90 but
30 seconds is regarded as maximum for focusing attention) – attention is the act
or process of focusing on one or more particulars in the content of one’s
consciousness to give special clearance to essentials by restricting one’s sensory
input from the environment’s unwanted aspects – attention is never entire. It
digresses but can be re-focused at will.
Requisites for attention:
 Try to anticipate the main ideas of the coming lecture: Look over your
notes of the previous lecture and read the course material.
If you have questions about material from the previous class or text, ask
the instructor before class about them Prepare a few questions you expect
to be answered on new material if possible.
 Resist distractions by sitting in front of the room away from disruptive
classmates and by focusing on the instructor through active listening and
note taking
28
 Put yourself in the "mood" with attentive expression and posture; do not
sprawl
 Shift position your seat every so often
Don't frozen in one positio
Shiftin on inoccasion
sit will keep the circulating,
n
gsend more help
oxygen to your brain, and helpblood
you remain alert.
 When appropriate: ask a question, ask for more

clarity, or engage an instructor and the class in dialogue.
 Train yourself not to give in to distractions you can learn that. When
someone enters the room, or when a door slams, do not allow
yourself to participate. Rather, keep your concentration on what's in
front of you. Form a tunnel, between you and the lecturer
 Practice letting people move or cough without having to look at them

- just let them "be out there" as you focus on what is being taught.
 When talking with someone, keep your attention on that person, look
at his face, and note what is being said. Let the rest of the world just
be "out there."
 Use the "Be here now" technique to help you regain concentration
when you do become distracted momentarily.
Thr ee Levels of Attention / Concentration
Light Concentration: Occurs when you first sit down. This level continues for
about the first 5 minutes.
You are just getting settled into your reading, listening, or studying. You are
easily distracted.
Moderate Concentration: Occurs during the next 5 minutes or so.
This is when you begin to pay attention. You are not as easily distracted,
although you may lose your Concentration if someone talks directly to you.
Deep Concentration: You aren’t thinking about anything except what you are
hearing or reading.
29
You may not notice if someone comes into the room or the ticking of the clock.
You typically are not easily distracted by external or internal stimuli. You are
working most effectively.
The Ideal Atmospher e for Attention & Concentration
 The noise level should be appropriate

 The table and chair are in comfortable size.
 The work surface and surrounding walls are uncluttered.
 Two or more sources of lighting are present.
 Necessary supplies are readily available.
Setting the Mental Stage
 Use Relaxation techniques to calm your mind.

 Arrange your goals and priorities for the study block.
 Visualize yourself capable of full concentration.
 Remember the Emotional E-words related to success: effort, enthusiasm,
energy and eagerness.
 Use positive Self-talk to set a positive attitude.
Identifying External and Internal Distracter s
 Make a to do list before you start studying or as the responsibilities pop

up in your mind while you are studying. Deal with these things only after
you are done studying.
 Visualize a mental storage box. Identify all your concerns, worries, or
emotions; and then visualize putting them into this box. Then, visualize
putting this box out of sight in a safe place.
 Place a big red bow outside your door when you are studying as a sign to
others that you are not to be disturbed and you need them to be quiet.
 Don’t fight the conditions around you (e.g., noisy people, room
temperature): take charge. Move to a different location; unplug the phone,
clean off your desk of unnecessary clutter, etc.
 If you hear things around you, tell yourself there’s no need to know what
is going on right now. When you hear something, just tell yourself, "No
need," and get back to the task at hand.
30
 Keep a scorecard. Every time you notice yourself being distracted, give
yourself a checkmark. With every study session, your goal is to have
fewer checkmarks than during your last study session.
 If you are distracted by the amount of material you have to study, chunk
the information into smaller, manageable units.
 Be aware of physical issues/problems. If you are hungry, eat something.
A diet higher in protein will often improve concentration. Substances
such as prescription and nonprescription medications, alcohol, illegal
drugs, and caffeine can lower your ability to concentrate and shorten
your attention span. Get a check-up; problems with concentration can be
compounded if you aren’t feeling well or if you are struggling with
chronic pain.
 Be an active learner:
2. Take notes as you study (have a pen in your hand)

3. Talk out loud to yourself as you study.
4. Experiment with different study techniques to find what works best for
you.
5. Walk around as you read or recite.
Active Listening Strategies during Lectures
 Eliminate Distractions so that you can concentrate effectively. Use the

"take charge" approach described above.
 Pay Attention to the development of ideas. Think about where the
lecturer started, how the ideas are connected, and where s/he might go
next.
 Stay Tuned in even when information is difficult, unfamiliar, or
uninteresting.
 Monitor your Emotions. Use the "no need" technique described above.
 Create an Interest in the topic being discussed.
 Ask questions at the appropriate times; e.g., at the end of a section or
lecture. Write down your questions as you think of them so you can refer
back to them later.
 Be Nonjudgmental about the speaker's appearance.
INVOLVEMENT
31
There is more passive kind of student involvement. In which there are a number
of activities that involves students in the class in a substantial and active way. We
can make the involvement as a teaching strategy on the following grounds.
AREA OF INVOLVEMENT
 Small group discussions
 Case Studies
 Role playing or Skill practice
 Simulations or structured exercises
 In-Class writing
 Cooperative Learning
 Debates
 Drama
SMALL GROUP DISCUSSION:
One excellent tool to build student involvement in a class to have them discusses
a topic or question with a partner or a few other students. The teacher can then
ask small groups to report their finding to the class.
We always monitor the group carefully to make sure they must spend time on
their tasks. Walk around the room and ask each group about their progress.
CASE STUDIES:
This method often used in psychology, and education curses relies on describing,
in some details, real-life situation. Student must consider the context of the
problem in order to make decision on how to solve it.
We should tell the student that you do not have single right answer in mind,
although there are better or worse answer to the dilemma. Remind them that
good answer will acknowledge all the complexities of the case, including the
values and emotions of those involved as well as the consequences of different
solutions.
ROLE PLAYING OR SKILL PRACTICE:
32
When student need to learn a skill, have the a practice, have them practice it
through role playing, either in front of the class or in small group.
You should be model for your student how to role-play. Let them see you
participate in one of the groups, but remind them you don’t have “right” or
“wrong” scenario in the mind. To ensure that all students participate during role-
playing, have students who are not performing. Don’t Critique the performance
of those, who are not performing as well, Tell them to state their criteria for
evolution.
SIMULATIONS OR STRUCTURED EXERCISES:
Specially designed game, helps students understands particular theoretical
concepts.
We make sure that we carefully think through the mechanics of games you
chose. Consider how long the exercise will last, what problem might arise how
we ensure that student is participating, etc. Practice the game with friends or
colleagues to work out the kinks before you use it in your classroom.
IN-CLASS WRITING:
Most higher learning institution now encourages writing in all disciplines.
Writing during class is important because it can challenge students to use higher-
order thinking skills such as analysis, synthesis, and evolution. Some
possible in-class writing assignment includes brainstorming, journal writing,
summarizing the main points of discussion, responding to a particular issue and
writing mock essay exam answers.
COOPERATIVE LEARNING:
In cooperative learning activity, this can span from any where from one class
period to an entire semester, student work in small group to solve a clearly
defined task. Each student in-group performs a clearly specified role, which is
essential for completing the entire project. When project are presented to their
classmates student will realize the value of pooling individual talents for the
33
benefits of entire groups. Since jobs must require employees to work together to
complete task, the skills students use during cooperative learning activities in an
academic setting transfer to real-life situations.
When we assign cooperative learning task, be sure to give both oral and written
direction and to reiterate them frequently. In addition, check on the students
‘progress as often as possible. We either may allow students to elect the group
leaders, recorders, researchers, etc. or we may determine their roles for them,
depending upon how much autonomy we wish to allow them .if group members
do not seem to be communicating effectively, we may wish to suggest possible
role changes.
DEBATES:
Depending upon such factors such as class size, student maturity level, available
time, and subject matter, teacher might use either formal debates where students
presents opposing sides and rebuttals or informal or conversational debates,
where student can interrupt with questions. Debates can be useful in helping
students recognize and overcome the basis they bring to certain topics and in
affording them opportunities to hone public speaking skills. In large class rooms
teachers can require students to prepare portion of the debate for homework and
form larger debates team.
To guarantee all that all students participate, you can require students in the
audience to critique debates and to vote both before and after them. If your
student will be debating controversial issues that may spark emotional relations,
discuss appropriate classroom behavior well before the debate begins. Remind
your student to challenge ideas, rather than the personal integrity or character
of their peers.
DRAMA:
Teacher can utilize plays to communicate much of the information that lectures
typically cove. Groups of students might enjoy performing pay scripts their
34
teacher have written for them or writing their own scripts. Most likely, student
will more opt to remember concepts that re coupled wit visual and auditory
images than word delivered solely by their teacher.
Asking the student to write and perform to play that teaches a certain concepts
allow them to see how challenging teaching can be. Be sure to have the students
evaluate their own and other’s performances. Discuss why certain section of the
play was more effective than others and create an environment of learning, peace
and prosperity.
REVIEWING QUESTIONS
1.What do you mean by the term learning? Explain its components and
characteristics features.
2.define the term Domains of learning? Please explain the different
types of
domains of learning.
3.What is the objective of learning methods? Explain different style of learning
methods.
4.What is the importance of teaching techniques? How you will plan effective
teaching techniques.
5.Please define instruction technology. Please explain objective and different
kinds of instruction technology.
6.Please explain the function a teacher in learning process. What is the different
approaches of instruction technology.
7.Write shorts notes on
- Objective of teacher behavior
- Taxonomy of teacher behavior
- Benefits of teacher behavior.
8 What are the different techniques of effective involvement?
9.How you will create an environment of attentation?
35
10. Please explain different level of attentation process and how you will create
listening strategies during lecture session?
36
Unit-II
LESSON-1
NEED FOR TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION-
In modern times, business environments are fast changing. Fast changing

technology and radical economic reforms have led to the emergence of new
opportunities and threats for business organisation and their employees. The
survival and success of business organisation depends upon its level of
preparation to deal with emerging scenario. By constantly training and
development its workforce from shop floor operations to senior managers so as
to upgrade the knowledge and skills .By enhancing employees skills and
knowledge level, a company also develops loyalty updating and commitment
among them. To gain these returns, companies must be prepared to invest
heavily in training.
In this present competitive and globalize economic environments, Successful
candidates placed on the jobs need training to perform their duties effectively.
Workers must be trained to operate machines, reduce scrap and avoid accidents.
It is not only the workers who need training, supervisors managers and
executives also need to be developed in order to enable them to grow and acquire
maturity of thought and action. Training and development constitute an ongoing
process in any organisation.
In simple term training and development refer to the imparting of
specific skills, abilities and knowledge to an employees. It is an
attempt to improve current and future employees performance by
increasing an employee’s ability to perform through learning.
Usually by changing the employees attitude or increasing the skills
37
and knowledge. The need for training and development is

determined by the employee’s performance deficiency.
PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING-
Training by trail and error results in wastage of time, efforts and resources. Since
training is a form of education some of the principles that emerge from learning
theory can be logically applied to training. Learning is the human process by
which Skills, knowledge, habits and attitudes are acquired and utilised in such a
way that behavior is modified.
The following Principles of learning should be satisfied by a good training
program:-
1. Practice- Employees learn more fast when theory and practice go hand in
hand. Employees under training should be given an opportunity to
participate in actual work performance.
2. Active Process- the individual learn better when more of his senses are
utilised in the efforts and he become more involved in the process of
learning.
3. Guidance- Learning is more efficient if it is not by trail and error but by
guiendence from expert. Guidance can speed the learning process and
provide feedback as well.
4. Trainee Readiness- People who are not ready to learn will not learn.
Consequently an effective training program must comprise individuals
who are ready to learn the skill at hand. Determining trainee readiness
involves examining certain important issues.
5. Motivation- Trainee must be motivated to improve his skills or
knowledge by increased compensation, promotion, Recognition etc.
6. Relevance- Most trainees quickly develop perception about whether
training is relevant. If trainee perceives that the instruction will actually
help them on the job, they are much more likely to be receptive to the
training. If they do not perceive they are more likely to demonstrate
active or passive resistance in the training.
7. Reinforcement-Reinforcement is another critical principles of learning. It
involves the process of providing financial rewards or non-financial
incentives such as praise or recognition. Reinforcement can often
encourage trainees to become more interested and involved in the
training.
38
8. Standard of performance- standard of performance must be set for the

learner. The standard provide goals and give a feeling of accomplishment
when the employees achieve them.
9. Feedback-In order to understand the potentialities and limits of
improvement of an employees the progress of his training must be
received from time to time. Such feedback will be a valuable aid in
adjusting training to the needs of the individual workers.
Any training and development program must contain inputs, which enable the
participants to gain skills, learn theoretical concepts and help acquire vision to
look into the distant future. The inputs in Training and developments are as
follows :-
SKILLS- A worker needs skills to operate machine and use other equipments
with least damage and scrape. This is a basic skill without which the employees
will not be able to function. Employees, particularly supervisors and executives
need interpersonal skills popularly known as the people skills. Interpersonal
skills are needed to understand one and others better, and act accordingly.
Interpersonal skills include Listing, persuading and showing an understanding of
others feelings.
EDUCATION:- The purpose of education is to teach theoretical concepts and
develop a sense of reasoning and judgments. Any training and development
program must contain an elements of education is well understood by HR
specialist.
DEVELOPMENT:-Development is an another components of training and
development which is less skill oriented but stresses on knowledge. Knowledge
about business environment, management principles and techniques, human
relation specific industry analysis is useful for better management of a company.
The managements of any organisation expects the following from its managers
when they are deputed to attend any training and development program:-
39
1. How do we make our managers self-starters? How do we imbibe them with

a sense of commitment and motivation so that they become self-generating?
2. How do we make them subordinate their parochial, functional loyalties to the
interests of the organisation as a whole?
3. How do we make them result-oriented? How do we help
them
see and internalize the difference between activity and results,
and between efficiency and effectiveness?
4. How do we make them sensitive to the environment in which
they function, both at the workplace and outside?
5. How do we make them aware of themselves- their potential and their
limitations? How do we help them see themselves as others see them and
accept this self-image as a prelude to change?
6. How do we teach them to communicate without filters, to see and feel points
of view different from their own?
7. How do we help them understand power and thereby develop leadership
styles which inspire and motivate others?
8. How do we instill a zest for excellence, a divine discontent, a nagging
dissatisfaction with the status quo?
Companies derive competitive advantage from training and development.

Training and development programme, as was pointed out earlier, help remove
performance deficiencies in employees. This is particularly true when-(i) the
deficiency is caused by a lack of ability rather than a lack of motivation to
perform, (ii)the individual(s) involved have the aptitude and motivation need to
learn to do the job better, and (iii) supervisors and pe4ers are supportive of the
desired behaviors.
40
There is greater stability, flexibility, and capacity for growth in an organisation.

Training contributes to employee stability in at least two ways. Employees
become efficient after undergoing training. Efficient employees contribute to the
growth of the organisation. Growth renders stability to the workforce. Further,
trained employees tend to stay with the organisation. They seldom leave the
company. Training makes the employees versatile in operations. All rounder can
be transferred to any job. Flexibility is therefore ensured. Growth indicates
prosperity, which is reflected in increased profits from year to year. Who else but
well-trained employees can contribute to the prosperity of an enterprise?
Accidents, scrap and damage to machinery and equipment can be

avoided or minimised through training. Even dissatisfaction,
complaints, absenteeism, and turnover can be reduced if employees
are trained well.
Future needs of employees will be met through training and development
programme. Organizations take fresh diploma holders or graduates as or

apprentices management trainees. They are absorbed after course
Training serves as an effective source of recruitment. Training is
completion.
an investment in HR with a promise of better returns in future.
LESSON-TWO
ROLE OF DEVLOPMENT OFFICES-

ADMINISTRATORS, CONSULTANT, DESIGENERS AND
INSTRUCTORS.
In India the business environment is changing radically. The Companies are

increasingly becoming aware of the need and importance of training for the
employees working at different levels. Besides up gradations of employee’s
knowledge and skills training increases employee’s loyalty to the organisation.
41
If the company is serious about training to its workers it shows that it also cares
for them. Nothing binds the entire workforce to the company as effectively as
opportunity to be trained especially skills beyond their daily operations. A large
number of companies have their own in company training programs. A
prominent Companies running in company training program are Larsen and
Toubro.KRIBHCO, ONGC, VOLTAS, INDIAN OIL, GAIL Etc. In this present
Compititative environment the companies deputed various roles and
responsibilities to its Administrative officers, Consultants, designers and
instructors to achieve the pre-determined objective and to survive in this present
globalize economy.
The role of administrative officer s of any organisation in respect of
Training and Development for its employees is as follows.
Training Need Analysis.

Training & Development Budget
Identification & preparation of Employees for proper training & development as
per training need analysis.
Development of proper system for training
Proper identification of trainer
Proper coordination of training activities.
The role of Consultant in any organisation in respect of Training and

Development for its employees is as follows.
The consultant shall provide all latest information regarding external / outside
training agencies for better conduct of training program on need basis.
The consultant shall give proper feedback regarding future training and
development programs.
The consultant provide work environment in which customers use

company’s products.
42
The consultant should ensure that training should be of global best practices.
The role of Designers and instructor s of any organisation in r espect of
Training and Development for its employees is as follows.
Designing a learning environment for training in an organisation.

Proper control of training and development program.
System Development
Creating an environment of Development.
Designing the program agenda.
To creating an environment of trust and learning.
Proper evaluation of training program.
Preparation of proper training guidelines.
To making the program a grand success.
To analyzing the program as per, pre determined goal as well.
Responsibilities of maintain peace during training program.
To have the program under training budget.
Major challenges of HRM
The major challenges of HRM are:

Outsourcing HR activities
BPO and Call Centres
To balance work-life
To make HR activities ethical
To manage diversity
Attitude towards unions
Globalisation
Organisational
restructuring
Changing demographics of work-force
Changed employee expectations
O
u
t
outside suppliers and contractors.
s Employee hiring, training and
o 43
u
r
c
i
n
g
H
R
development and maintenance of statutory records are the usual

functions contracted out to outsiders. P&G has signed a 10 year,
$400 million deal with IBM to handle employee services. IBM will
support almost 98,000 of P&G employees in nearly 80 countries
with services such as payroll processing, benefits administration,
compensation, planning, expatriate and relocation services, and
travel and expense management.
BPO AND CALL CENTRES
Business Process Outsourcing (BPO)
Several MNCs are increasingly unbundling or vertical deintegrating

their activities. Put in simple language, they have begun outsourcing
(also called business process outsourcing, or BPO) activities
formerly performed in-house and concentrating their energies on a
few functions. Outsourcing involves withdrawing from certain
stages/activities and relying on outside vendors to supply the needed
products, support services, or functional activities.
Call Centres-Challenges
If an external company develops the software for a company, if someone else

does advertising for the company’s products and if some other firm administers
benefits for the company’s employees, it is BPO. Similarly, if some other
company makes calls to the company’s customers or receives their calls, it is call
centre business – a part of BPO itself. But because of its high visibility, call
centre business is treated independently.
44
HOW TO BALANCE WORK WITH LIFE
Balancing work and life assumes relevance when both husband and
wife are employed. Travails of a working housewife are more than a
working husband, as the opening case to this chapter shows. Work-
life balance is becoming a major challenge to HR manager as more
women are taking up jobs to add to finances of their families or to
become careerists. In India, workingwomen now account for 15 per
cent of the total urban female population of 150 million.
The
number is likely to increase as more number of girls is coming out of
colleges and universities with degrees in their hands.
MAKING HR ACTIVITIES ETHICAL
The HR manager’s role in building an ethical climate in the organisation is

significant. The HR manager needs to carefully screen applications for jobs,
weed out those who are prone to indulge in misdemeanors and hire those who
can build a value driven organisation.
Hiring ethically strong employees is only the beginning. The HR manager

needs to institute; mechanisms to ensure ethical conduct of employees.
MANAGING DIVERSITY
Employees of organizations are becoming increasingly heterogeneous. As days
go by, diversity is going to be an important issue for the HR manager for the
following reasons:
 The number of young workers in the work-force is increasing

 More women rejoining the work-force.
 The proportion of ethnic minorities in the total work-force is increasing
 Work force mobility is increasing
 International careers and expatriates are becoming common
45
 International experience is becoming a pre-requisite for career progression to

many top-level managerial positions.
GLOBALIZATION
How to face competition from MNCs is a worry for Indian firms. As

globalization spreads, more foreign firms are entering Indian market and the
challenge before domestic firms is going to be much more severe in the years to
come. Many Indian firms are compelled to think globally, something which is
difficult for managers who were accustomed to operate in vast sheltered markets
with minimal or no competition either from domestic or foreign firms. The
Internet is adding fuel to globalization and most large MNCs are setting up green
field projects in India or entering into joint ventures with local companies.
Cor por ate Reor ganizations

It is difficult to imagine circumstances that pose a greater challenge
for HRM than reorganizations resulting from acquisitions, mergers,
divestitures or take-over threats. The reorganizations will have
impact on organizational levels and employees. Employees
experience anxiety and uncertainty about their places in a new
organisation. The strength of unionized staff of Shaw Wallace, for
example, has risen considerably in 1995, thanks to the acquisition of
14 distilleries. Executive strength has also gone up by 20 per cent in
one year. As a trimming exercise, the company decided to retrench
as many as 400 executives.
The employees of both the ‘taking over’ as well as the ‘taken over’
companies will have anxious moments because of:
 Fear of loss of jobs
46
 Job changes, including new roles and assignments

 Transfers to new geographic locations
 Changes in remuneration and benefits
 Changes in career possibilities
 Changes in organizational power, status, and prestige
 Staff changes, including new peers, supervisors, and
 Changes in corporate culture and loss of identity in the company.
CHANGING DEMOGRAPHICS OF WORKFORCE

The major challenge that has resulted from changing workforce demographics
concerns dual career couples, couples where both partners are actively pursuing
professional careers. Organizations have been accustomed to using job moves
and physical relocation as an important means of developing talent. Men or
women moving through organizational ranks to upper-level positions need
experience in a variety of roles in different organizational units. Frequently,
physical relocation is required. The increasing number of dual-career
professionals limits individual flexibility in accepting such assignments and may
hinder organizational flexibility in acquiring and developing talent.
CHANGED EMPLOYEE EXPECTATIONS
With the changes in workforce demographics, employee expectations and
attitudes also have shifted. Traditional allurements such as job security, attractive
remuneration, housing and the like do not attract and motivate today’s workforce.
Employees demand empowerment and expect equality with the management.
Previous notions on managerial authority are giving way to employee influence
and involvement alongwith mechanisms for upward communication and due
process.
LOSS OF J OY AND PLEASURE
The HR manager of today is an unfortunate individual. He/she has

been denied the joy and pleasure of hiring and managing
thousands
47
of employees under one roof. Which HR manager of today claims to

have experienced the real HR challenges of yester years? Which HR
manager today has received bricks, encountered menacing body
language of irate workers, faced strikes, saw lockouts, witnessed
vehicles being burnt, executives being lynched, saw graffiti on the
walls in which his own name is dragged and maligned by militant
union leaders? The HR manager of today is a poor legacy of the one
lived in the past.
With regard to the HR function, the focus in the coming years would be on the
following lines:
 HRM to become integral of business,
 Empowerment of employees,
 Focus on productivity through team building,
 Dynamic/flatter/matrix organizational structures,
 People-sensitive management styles and practices,
 Management of the changing workforce skill/sex/turnover,
 Managing the changing work diversification – change of priorities,
 Efficient use of information technology,
 Strengthening organizational communication,
 Greater focus on man-machine interface,
 Institutionalizing employee involvement,
 Sustaining individual effectiveness through performance feedback and
counselling.
LESSON-THREE
DETERMINING TRAINING NEEDS
It is also called training needs analysis or training needs assessment. Needs

assessment problems and future challenges to be met through training and
development. Organisation spends vast sums of money on training and
development. Before committing such huge resources, organisation would do
48
well to assess the training needs of their employees. Organisation that

implements training programs without conducting needs assessment may be
making errors.
Needs assessment occurs at two levels- Group and individual. An individual
needs training when his or her performance falls short of standards that are when
there is performance deficiency. Inadequacy in performance may be due to lack
of skills or knowledge or any other problems. The problem of performance
deficiency caused by absence of skills or knowledge can be remedied by
training.
Faulty selection, Poor job design, uninspiring supervision or some personal
problem may also result in poor performance. Transfer, job redesign, improving
quality of supervision, or discharge will solve the problem.
Figure 1.1 illustrates the assessment of individual training needs and remedial
measures.
Per formance Deficiency
Lack of Skills Other Causes

Or
Knowledge
Training Non-training
Measures
(Fig 1.1 Needs assessment and remedial measures)

Assessment of training needs must also focus on anticipated skills of employees,
Technology changes fast and new technology demands new skills. It is necessary
that the employees be trained to acquire new skills. This will help him
to progress in his career path. Training and development is essential to prepare
the employee to handle more challenging tasks. Individuals may also require
49
new skills because of possible job transfers. Employees commonly require only
an orientation to new facilities and jobs.
Recently, however, economic forces have necessitated significant

retraining efforts in order to assure continued employment for many
individuals. Job has disappeared as technology, foreign competition,
and the forces of supply and demand are changing the face of our
industry.
Assessment of training needs occurs at the group level too. Any change in the
organizations strategy necessitates training of groups of employees. For
examples, when the organisation decides to introduce a new line of products,
sales personnel and production workers have to be trained to produce sell and
service the new products. Training can also be used when high scrap or accident
rates, low morale and motivation, or other problems are diagnosed.
TRAINING NEEDS ASSESSMENT METHODS-
Several methods are available for training needs assessment. Some useful
organizational level needs assessment and others for individual’s needs
assessment.
50
Methods Used in Training Needs Assessment

Group or Organizational Analysis Individual Analysis
Organizational goals and objectives Performance appraisal
Personnel/skills inventories Work sampling
Organizational climate Indices Interviews
Group or Organizational Analysis Individual Analysis
Efficiency indices Questionnaires
Exit Interviews Attitude survey
MBO or work planning systems Training progress
Quality circles Rating scales
Customer survey/satisfaction data
Consideration of current and projected
changes
Issues in Needs Assessment

Needs assessment, individual or group, should consider several issues as shown
in Fig.1.1.
Organizational Support
Needs assessment is likely to make inroads into organizational life. The
assessment tends to change patterns of behavior of employees. When the needs
assessment is carefully designed and supported by the organisation, disruption is
minimised and co-operation is much more likely to occur. Obviously, the analyst
needs to take steps to work effectively with all parties and gain the trust and
support of the participants in the needs assessment.
ORGANIZATIONAL ANALYSIS
Having obtained organizational support, the next step in the needs assessment is
an organizational analysis, which seeks to examine the goals of the organisation
(short-term and long-term), and the trends that are likely to affect these goals.
The analyst needs to ask and answer the following questions:
Is there a sufficient supply of people?
How does the firm attract, retain and motivate diverse work force?
51
How does the firm compete for individuals with the right skills, knowledge, and
abilities and attitudes?
How do employees make the firm competitive, domestically and

internationally?
Which are the target jobs that require training?
These issues enable the analyst identify skill gaps in people, which training seeks
to fill. An organizational analysis tries to answer the question of where
the training emphasis should be placed in the company and what factors may
affect training. To do this, an examination should be made of the organizational
goals, personnel inventories, performance data, and climate and efficiency
indices. This examination should ideally be conducted in the context of the labor
supply forecast and gap analysis. Organization system constraints that may
hamper the training process also should be explored. Training does not exist in a
vacuum and the context in which it occurs has an impact on whether individuals
will learn. Many companies rely on very detailed surveys of the workforce to
determine training needs as part of the planning effort. Motorola and IBM, for
example, conduct annual surveys that assess particular training needs in the
context of the company’s short and long-term goals.
Task and KSA Analysis
In addition to obtaining organizational support and making organizational

analysis, it is necessary to assess and identify what tasks are needed on each job
and which knowledge; skills and abilities (KSAs) are necessary to perform these
tasks. This assessment helps prepare a blueprint that describes the KSAs to be
achieved upon completion of the training programme.
52
Person Analysis
This analysis obviously targets individual employees. A very

important aspect of person analysis is to determine which
necessary
KSAs have already been learnt by the prospective trainee so that
precious training time is not wasted repeating what has already been
acquired. Also, employees who need to undergo training are
identified at this stage. A person analysis attempts to answer the
question of who needs training in the firm and the specific type of
training needed. To do this, the performance of individuals, groups,
or units on major job functions (taken from the performance
appraisal data) is compared to the expected performance standards.
Given these data, one should be able to determine which job
incumbents (or groups of incumbents) are successful at completing
the tasks required. Many companies use self-assessments in this
process. For example, Ford determined the training needs for a new
computer language based on a self-assessment questionnaire
distributed to the staff. At the managerial level, many organizations.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE TRAINING PROGRAM
After a needs analysis has been conducted and the staff is confident
that training is needed to address the performance problem or to
advance the firm’s mission, the training program is developed. This
can be done by an in-house training program is developed. This can
be done by an in-house training staff or by outside consultants.
53
Many firms now even design and manage their own corporate
training centers.
To develop the program, the trainer should design a training environment
conducive to learning. This can be done by setting up preconditions for learning
and arranging the training environment to ensure learning. Following this, the
trainer should examine various training methods and techniques to choose the
combination most beneficial for accomplishment of the instructional objectives
of the training program.
Designing a Lear ning Envir onment for Tr aining

To design a training program in which learning will be facilitated, trainers should
review the basic principles of how individuals learn. Learning principles should
be re-viewed and integrated into the design of the training program and
materials. Also, issues of how to maximize transfer of new behaviors back to the
job should be addressed. Finally, trainers should design their programs to meet
the needs of adults as learners. Which means understanding how adults best
learn. For example, adult learners want to set their own goals for training since
they see themselves as capable of self-direction. In addition, they often enjoy
experiential learning techniques and self-directed learning more than
conventional informational techniques. They are problem-centered and are more
receptive to training that enables them to solve problems of particular interest to
their situation. They want to be able to apply the training they receive to their
day-to-day work experiences and are less interested in the program if they
cannot see a direct application to their work situation.
Pr econditions of Lear ning

Trainees must be ready to learn before they are placed in any training program.
To ensure this, trainers should determine whether trainees are trainable (i.e.,
whether they have the ability to learn and are motivated to learn). In addition,
54
trainers should try to gain the support of trainees and their supervisors prior to
actually implementing the program. This is particularly important for training in
sensitive areas such as diversity and gender and race discrimination.
Tr ainability
Before the learner can benefit from any formal training, he or she
must be trainable or ready to learn. This means to learn. To have the
ability, the trainee must possess the skills and knowledge
prerequisite to master the material. One way to determine this is to
give trainees a work sample (i.e., an example of the types of skills to
be performed on the job) and measure how quickly they are able to
learn the material or how well they are able to perform the skills.
Assessing trainees’ ability to learn is of increasing concern to
corporate America. In view of the increasing technological
knowledge required in most jobs, many Americans are not being
educated at a level compatible with the requirements of most entry-
level jobs. This situation appears to be getting worse in the United
States since the entry-level jobs of the future are being “up-skilled”
while the pool of qualified workers is shrinking.
Gaining the support of trainees and others.
If tr ainees do not see the value of tr aining, they will be unlikely
to lear n new behavior s or use them on their jobs. Tr ainees
should be infor med in advance about the benefits that will r esult
fr om tr aining. If they see some incentives for tr aining, it may
str engthen their motivation to lear n the behavior s, pr actice
55
them, and r emember them. To gain the suppor t of tr ainees for

the tr aining pr ogr am, the tr ainer must point out the intr insic
(e.g., per sonal gr owth) and extr insic (e.g., pr omotion) benefits
of attending tr aining. Employees ar e str ongly encour aged to r
eceive skills tr aining. In fact, 5 per cent of their year ly
compensation is based on the amount of tr aining they r eceive.
Conditions of the Learning Environment
After ensur ing the pr econditions for lear ning ar e met, tr ainer s
should build a tr aining envir onment in which lear ning is
maximized. To do this, tr ainer s need to decide how to best
ar r ange the tr aining envir onment by addr essing the issues
below.
Over learning
Over lear ning pr acticing far beyond the

(i.e., per point of successfully)
for ming and
acquisition the tr ansfer of knowledge
canand skills.be
Gener ally, cr
over
itical over time makes in
lear ning incr eases r etention the behaviorboth
or
task
skill mor e automatic, incr eases the quality of the per for mance
dur ing str ess, and helps tr ainees tr ansfer what they have lear
ned back to the job setting. Over lear ning is desir able in a pr ogr
am when the task to be lear ned is not likely to be immediately
pr acticed in the wor k situation and when per for mance must be
maintained dur ing per iods of emer gency and str ess
56
Goal Setting
Goal setting can help employees impr ove their per for mance by
dir ecting their attention to specific behavior s that need to be
changed. If employees set specific, challenging goals, they can r
each higher levels of per for mance. For example, r esear ch has
shown that goal setting has led to an aver age incr ease of 19 per
cent. Goal setting impr oves per for mance because it affects four
mechanisms.
57
Attention
Tr ainer s should tr y to design tr aining pr ogr ams and mater ials
to ensur e that tr ainees devote attention to them. They can do
this by choosing a tr aining envir onment that is comfor table to
tr ainees (e.g., that has good temper atur e, lighting, seats, plenty
of r oom, snacks) and fr ee fr om distr actions.
Transfer of Training
The ultimate goal of a tr aining pr ogr am is that the lear ning that
occur s dur ing tr aining be tr ansfer r ed back to the job. To
maximize tr ansfer , the following suggestions have been offer ed.
These include ideas for the tr aining session itself as well as for
the employee once he or she has r etur ned to the job:-
1. Maximize the similar ity between the tr aining context and the
job context. That is, the tr aining should r esemble the job as
closely as possible. At GE, for example, the “action-lear ning”
pr ocess focuses on r eal business pr oblems.
2. Requir e pr actice of the new behavior s and over -lear ning in
tr aining.
3. Encour age tr ainees to pr actice skills on their jobs in between
tr aining sessions.
4. Develop, and have available on the job, job aids to r emind
employees of the key action steps necessar y on the job.
58
5. Make sur e that the gener al pr inciples under lying the specific
content ar e under stood in tr aining.
BENEFITS OF NEEDS ASSESSMENT
Training programs are designed to achieve specific goals that meet felt needs.
There is always the temptation to begin training without a thorough analysis of
these needs. Should this happen, the training programme becomes inappropriate
and its administration turns out to be perfunctory. There are other benefits of
needs assessment:
Trainers may be informed about the broader needs of the trainees.
Trainers are able to pitch their course inputs closer to the specific needs of the
trainees.
Assessment makes training department more accountable and more clearly linked
to other human resource activities, which may make the training programme
easier to sell to line managers.
Consequences of absence of training need assessment.
The significance of needs assessments can be better understood by looking at the
consequences of inadequate or absence of needs assessments. Failure to conduct
needs assessments can contribute to:
 Loss of business
 Constraints on business developments
 Higher labour turnover
 Poorer –quality applicants
 Increased overtime working
 Higher rates of pay, overtime etc
 Higher recruitments costs, including advertising and incentives
 Greater pressure and stress on management and staff to provide cover
 Pressure on job evaluation, grading structure payment system and career
structure
 Additional retention costs in the form of flexible working time.
59
 Need for job redesign and revision of job specfication.

 Undermining career paths and structure
 Higher training costs.
The first step in training is to determine that a need for training

actually exists. An organization should commit its resources to a
training activity only if the training can be expected to achieve some
organizational goal. The decision to conduct training must be based
on the best available data, which are collected by conducting a needs
assessment. This needs analysis ideally should be conducted in the
context of a human resource planning (HRP) program and timely and
valid performance data. Companies that implement training
programs without conducting a needs assessment may be making
erros or spending money unnecessarily. For example, a needs
assessment might reveal that less-costly interventions (e.g.,
personnel selection, a new compensation system, job redesign) could
be used in lieu of training. Despite the importance of conducting
needs assessments, few employers conduct such an analysis in the
context of their strategic plans or any form of strength, weakness,
opportunity, or threat analysis.
A needs assessment is a systematic, objective determination of training needs
that involves conducting three primary types of analyses. These analyses are
used to derive objectives for the training program. The three analyses consist of
an organizational analysis, a job analysis, and a person analysis. After compiling
the results, objectives for the training program can be derived.
60
Many trainers suggest that a training need is any discrepancy

between what is desired and what exists. Thus, one of the goals of
the needs assessment is to note any discrepancies. For example, the
World Bank recently determined through a needs assessment that
many of its constituents from Eastern Europe required training in
transforming state-owned businesses into self-sustaining businesses.
The organization contracted with a number of universities to develop
and provide the necessary training.
Comparisons between the expected level of performance specified (from the job
analysis) and the current level of performance exhibited (evident in the person
analysis) may indicate performance discrepancies.
Developing a Training Program
There are seven major steps that need to be managed in developing a

training development progr am.
Identifying training needs

Defining training objectives
Selecting trainees
Determining the training contents and choosing training methods.
Training Methods
Selection of trainers
Evaluation
Identifying Tr aining Needs-
The Training Program should be beginning with the identification of

organisation need for such a program. The primary aim of training is
61
to bring about suitable change in the individual so that he can be

useful to the organisation. Therefor training needs have to be related
to organisation s demands as well as individual requirements. In all
such situation the organisation will have to identify the training
needs of its employees.
Defining Tr aining Objectives
Training usually means skills training having fairly direct or immediate
applicability. The objective of training differs according to the employees
belonging to different levels of organisation. The basic objective of training is to
establish a match between man and his job. Thus training aims at improving
knowledge and skills level and developing right attitude among employees in
order to enable them to perform their present job effectively or to prepare them
for a future assignment. However from the point of view of an organisation,
employee’s growth is a mean to organizational effectiveness.
Selecting Tr ainees-
It is another important decision concerns the selection of trainees. For an
organisation providing the right training to the right people can help to create and
maintain a well-trained and stable work force. While selecting trainee due
attention should be given to employee needs and motivation, skill obsolesces and
retaining requirements.
Many companies have moved in the direction of training employees to have
multiple skills called multiskilling. In particular, multiskilling is relevant where
semiautonomous or self-managed teams are utilized. Everyone is encouraged to
learn all of the jobs of the team and employees are generally paid according to
the number of skill that they have developed.
Deter mining the Training contents and choosing training methods.
62
Training objectives guide the training curriculum. The contents will very
according to the type of the training and the specific requirement of the trainees.
The type of employees training method best suited to a specific organisation
depends upon a number of factors, such as skills required for the job,
qualification of candidate to be trained, kinds of operating problems confronted
by the organisation and the support of the higher management to the training
program.
Training Budget
Training budget involves out flow of funds from the organisation for which
budget should be available. Formulating a training budget will be an interactive
process with the other steps in developing skills training program. Budget
constraints may limit the human resources manager’s alternatives and must
therefore be considered during all phases of the development process.
Decision regarding Trainer s

An effective training program cannot be developed if effective trainers are not
available. Organisation has the option of using staff trainers or of seeking
contract trainers out side. or of doing both when available. Staff trainers- full
time specialist on the organisation payroll or member selected to do part-time
training. The key to success however is selecting the right individual and
providing them with the tool thee need to be effective.
Selecting good trainer is often not essay.
LESSON-FOUR
POTENTIAL MACRO NEEDS -USEFULLNESS OF

Tr aining
63
Analysis of the environment is useful for the HR manager

and for his team in order to become proactive to the
environment. Reactive strategy serves the purpose when the
environment is fairly stable and competition is less serve.
Pro-active steps are vital for any organisation if it has to
survive in such an environment. Under the potential macro
needs for training and development for the employees HR
manager should see the external forces which includes
Political-Legal, Economic, Technological and Cultural
factors.
Political – Legal-The political environment covers the impact of political
institution on the HRM department. In a democratic political setup. There are
three institutions, which together constitute the total political environment. They
are-1 the legislature 2.The executive 3. The judiciary.
The legislature also called Parliament at the central level and

assembly at the state level is the law-making body. The plethoras of
labour acts, which are in force, are enacted by the legislature. The
executive popularly known as the government is the law
implementing body. The legislature decides and the executives act.
Above these two is the judiciary, which has the role of a watchdog.
The main function of the judiciary is to ensure that both the
64
legislature and the executive work within the confines of the

constitution and in the public interest.
ECONOMIC- Economic environment refers to all those economic forces,
which have a bearing on the HR function. Economic growth, industrial
production, agriculture, population, national and per capita income, money and
capital markets, suppliers, competitors, customers, and industrial labour are the
components of the economic environment. The last four are highly relevant to
HR activities. Another components of economic environment is globalization.
Hence, a brief description of each follows.
SUPPLIERS – For the HR department, suppliers are those who provide human
resources to an organisation. Employment exchanges, universities, colleges,
training institutes, consulting firms, casual labour contractors, competitors, and
the like are the sources that supply human resources. The type of employees the
organisation receives depends on the suppliers.
COMPETITORS – Competition plays a significant role in some of the HR
functions and activities. As the number of organizations competing for human
resources increases, so does the importance of the staffing function and its
appraisal and compensation activities. If several companies make job offers to
one individual, the organisation with more attractive terms and conditions will
win. When employees with particulars skills are hard to obtain, the organisation
may need to groom its own employees through well-managed HR planning
programme co-coordinated with training and development activities.
CUSTOMERS – customers have their own influence on a

company’s personnel functions. It needs no mention that
customers want high-quality products at reasonable prices.
So everybody in the organisation must endeavor to offer
65
products, which give satisfaction for the money customers

pay. Sales are often affected by product quality, which is
directly related to the skills and qualification of the
organization’s employees.
Motor Industries Limited (MICO), Bangalore, has 12
quality principals. The fifth and sixth principles are worth
quoting here. They are illustrative of customers’ influence
on personnel.
The fifth principle – ‘Our customers are final judges of
our quality.’
The sixth principle – ‘Each and every employee in the company
contributes towards achieving our quality goods. It is therefore the
responsibility of every employee-from apprentice to the member of the Board –
to ensure that their work is of the highest standard. Anyone who identifies
quality, but does not have the authority to remedy it himself, must report it
immediately to his superior.’
ECONOMIC GROWTH – Whether a country is economically developed
or not
affects the quality of labour. Quality of labour in any country depends to
a large extent on education and health available for its citizens. In advanced
countries people and governments spend more on education and health; with
greater wealth and education better quality labour is assured, which in turn
ensures higher productivity. The inverse is likely to happen in low-income
countries, which spend less on education and health. Uneducated citizens with
poor health cannot contribute to productivity. Realizing the relationship
among health,
66
education, quality labour and productivity, development policies tend to focus on

these variables simultaneously.
INDUSTRIAL LABOUR – Over the years, certain changes have taken place in
industrial labour, particularly in the organized sector. They are (i) commitment to
industry, (ii) protective legislation, (iii) status, (iv) employment pattern, and
(v) unionization.
Labour is now committed to industrial setting, thus contributing to stabilizing the

workforce. True, the worker who takes up a job in an urban industrial area might
have his/her moorings in a village. But, it is unlikely that he/she would go back
to his/her village. The worker who settles down in the city, admits his/her
children in city schools, buys a small residential house in the city and will
gradually become an alien in his/her native village. Thus, the present generation
of young workers is mostly born and brought-up in urban areas and has accepted
industrial employment as a way of life. But the sad part of the picture is that
though labour is committed to industry, it is not committed to work. This is the
reason for the low productivity of our industrial labour.
Protective legislation is another feature of our industrial labour. From time to
time, the government has been enacting one legislation after another to protect
the interests of workers.
The economic and social status of today’s workers has vastly improved.
Industrial employment is no longer the undesirable alternative left for those
driven out from their villages. Improved skill contents of the jobs, matching
educational and training inputs and increased emoluments have made industrial
employment the first attraction of young job seekers. Industrial employment is
now not restricted only to the socially backward castes. The dynamic changes in
the industrial sphere have, as the National Commission on Labour has observed,
brought about a ‘social amalgam.’ The status of an industrial worker of today
67
has enhanced as a result of the readjustment in the value system in favour of

industrial employment, which is, in turn, the aggregate effect of his/her
improved skills, and his/her enlarged pay packet. The stigma attached to factory
employment has gradually disappeared.
Naturally, age-old practices like holding name plates aloft and waiting hours at
an airport or railway station with a car for an arriving managing director, taking
the sahib’s children to school, buying vegetables for the sahib’s wife, and tending
the boss’s garden at home are resented and even protested against now. Another
feature noticed in industrial labour is the change that has come about in the
employment pattern of labour. This is due to the changes in industrial
activity, which has tremendously expanded and diversified and also undergone a
technical transformation. In the early years, unskilled labour predominated the
industrial employment scenario, when traditional industries like textile and
mining were in the forefront. In the process of expansion and diversification,
new avenues of industrial enterprise in engineering. Chemicals, electronics,
informatics and pharmaceuticals have assumed importance and have changed the
composition of industrial employment. The improved technology of these new
industries created jobs with greater skill content, thereby raising the minimum
required standard of education. No more do workers wear blue uniforms
or work in ‘smoke-stack’ factories. No more are they ignorant of company
decisions, new product launches, mergers or closures. No longer are ‘chain of
command’ and ‘unity of command’ appreciated.
DIVERSITY – Finally, the industrial labour is characterised by increasing
diversity. Workforce of any factory comprises people from different countries.
Within this diversity of national origins, there is an even wider diversity of
cultures, religions, languages and dialects, educational attainment, skills, values,
ages, races, genders, and other differentiating variables.
68
Organizations are becoming increasingly cosmopolitan. Days when

organizations were manned with Shettys, Reddys, Nairs, Raos,
Mehtas or Singhs, are over. A typical organisation is emerging as an
amalgam of diverse workforce in terms of gender, race and ethnicity.
One can find a Shastri rubbing shoulders with a khan, both jostling
with a Gowda, and all shaking hands with a Singh. Then there are
physically handicapped, gays and lesbians, the elderly, and even
people who are significantly overweight.
Though they work together, they maintain their distinct identities, diverse
cultural moorings and separate lifestyles. HR managers must learn to live with
these diverse behaviors. Diversity, if properly managed, can increase creativity
and innovation in organizations as well as improve decision making by providing
different perspectives on problems.
Impact of Globalization- Our economy is gradually getting integrated with the
global economy. Globalization has considerable influence on Hr functions.
Employees hiring, training, motivation, compensation and retaining are to be
guided by the global perspective. By discharging these and other functions
effectively and by helping the best-qualified people execute the company s
strategy on a global scale, the department can become a source of competitive
advantage for the company.
Technological- J K Galbraith defines technology as a systemic application of
organized knowledge to practical tasks. During the last 150 years, technology
has developed beyond anybody’s comprehension. Science and technology enable
man to overcome distance, control birth rate, save life, generate, preserve and
distribute energy.
69
Cultur al For ces-Cultural refers to the complex whole

which includes Knowledge, belief art morale laws customs
and other capabilities and habits acquired by an individual
as a member of a society.
How Does Culture Influence the HR Function?
In the first place, culture creates the type of people who become
members of an organisation. Culture trains people along particular
lines, tending to put a personality stamp upon them. Thus, we have
Indians, Japanese, Americans, Britishers, Germans and so on. It is
not that all people are alike in a particular culture. There are sub-
cultures within a culture. For, people have their own idiosyncrasies
and are influenced by heredity, cultural experiences, sub-cultural
experiences, family experiences and unique personal experiences.
Secondly, the attitude of workers towards work is the result of their cultural
background. Our workers are known to have a deep-seated apathy towards
work. Work is dissociated from results in the belief that results are pre- ordained.
Tasks are performed (if ever performed) without any interest, dedication or
pride. Worse, there is indiscipline at all levels, nagging suspicion of fellow
workers, basic mistrust of authority, and poor man-management relationships.
Thirdly, time dimension, which influences HRM, has its roots in culture. Time
orientation refers to people’s orientation-past, present or future. In some
societies, people are oriented towards the past. In others, they tend to be more
focused on the present. Still others are futuristic in their outlook. HRM people in
societies that focus on the present, care more for employees on the rolls.
70
Fourthly, work ethics, achievement needs and effort-reward expectations, which

are significant inputs determining individual behavior, are the results of culture.
The word ethics is associated with moral principles. In the context of an
organisation, ethics implies hard work and commitment to work. A strong work
ethics ensures motivated employees whereas the opposite is true when work
ethics is weak.
Finally, Culture makes people confine themselves to certain occupations and
regions. Workers employed in coffee estates or tea plantations in Malnad region
cannot probably work in places like Bangalore. Their food habits, dress sense,
language and the physical labour they put in-all seem to have been contrived to
make them fit to work in such places. A drive through the Malnad region in the
month of July makes you feel sorry for the labour employed in estates. For
kilometers, there are no human beings but suddenly you notice a tiny structure in
an estate where two or three people live. With heavy rain and no electricity, it is
an eerie environment. But they are not sorry to live there. Their culture has made
them adjust to work and stay there comfortably. Similar is the story with miners
working in Singareni Coal Mines, or those employed in diamond cutting units at
Surat in Gujarat.
INTERNAL FORCES
In addition to the external forces, there are factors internal to the organisation,
which influence HR activities. Unlike the external forces, where HRM has no
control, internal factors are within its influence. Prominent internal forces are:
(i) Strategy, (ii) Task, (iii) Leadership, (iv) Unions, (v) Organizational culture and
conflicts, and (vi) professional bodies.
Str ategy, Task and Leader ship
A strategy indicates the direction in which an organisation MOVES.
As a plan, a strategy takes the organisation into the area of
71
competition in environment and into alignment with the resources of

the firm. For example, early success of Infosys was due to high
alignment of its strategy, structure, people and management.
Some companies believe that long tem success is more important and
towards this objective they invest more in human resources-in terms
of employee training, safety, security, welfare and harmonious
industrial relations.
Task is a work that an employee is expected to do. Several tasks constitute a job.
When we describe task here, we keep the job in mind because an employee holds
a job and through that he or she discharges tasks associated with it.
Task has implications on employee motivation and satisfaction. Several job
characteristics such as skills required, task significance, autonomy and feedback
of results have motivational effects. In fact, impact of job on employee
motivation is so significant that Herzberg advocated the concept of job
enrichment.
It is the leader who matters in any functional area of business. HRM

is no exception. Leader must orchestrate the distinctive skills,
experience, personalities and motives of employees. A leader
provides direction, encouragement and authority to evoke desired
behavior. A leader chooses right people and motives them to
consistently strive towards making them overreach themselves.
Leadership involves catalyzing the learning process among
followers, as well as creating the environment that contributes to
improving performance. The leader is an important source of
72
knowledge about the tasks, the organisation and the HRM polices,
programs and goals.
Unions
Unionization as an external factor was examined earlier. The same has been
included here as an internal environment. This is justified because a firm’s
personnel activities will be influenced by its own union(s) as well as the unions
of other plants.
A trade union may be understood as an association of workers or management
formed to protect their own individual interests. The role of a union is too well
known, not needing any elaboration here. All HR activities-recruitment,
selection, training, compensation, IR and separation-are carried out in
consultation with union leaders. The role of unions becomes pronounced when a
new wage agreement needs to be signed. Generally, a wage agreement has a life
of three years. After the expiry of one agreement, a new one has to be reached.
Or ganizational Cultur e and Conflict

Every organisation, as mentioned earlier, has its own culture; Organizational
culture is the product of all the organization’s features-its people, its successes,
and its failures. Organizational culture reflects the past and shapes the future. It is
the job of HR specialists to adjust proactively to the culture of the organisation.
For example, objectives can be achieved in several acceptable ways. This idea,
called equifinality, means there are usually multiple paths to objectives. The key
to success is picking the path that best fits the organistsation’s culture.
73
Pr ofessional Bodies
As was pointed out earlier, the impact of the apex body, National Institute of
Personnel Management (NIPM), on HR experts is minimal. The body has not
been able to prescribe its accreditation as a pre-requisite for HR practitioners. In
fact, it has not even prescribed a minimum academic qualification for an HR
professional. Its record of contribution to relevant policymaking, participation in
tripartite for a, and authority to morally bind its members to certain basic
professional values is disappointing.
How Tr aining Benefits the Or ganisation

Training Benefits the organisation as follows.
 Leads to improved profitability and/or more positive attitudes towards profit

orientation
 Improves the job knowledge and skills at all levels of the organisation
 Improves the morale of the workforce
 Helps people identify with organizational goals
 Helps create a better corporate image
 Fosters authenticity, openness and trust
 Improves relationship between boss and subordinate
 Aids in organizational development
 Learns from the trainee
 Helps prepare guidelines fro work
 Aids in understanding and carrying out organizational policies.
 Provides information for future needs in all areas of the organisation
 Organisation gets more effective decision-making and problem-solving skills
 Aids in development for promotion from within
 Aids in developing leadership skills, motivation, loyalty, better attitudes, and
other aspects that successful workers and managers usually display
 Aids in increasing productivity and/or quality of work

 Helps keep costs down in many areas, e.g. production, personnel,
administration, etc.
 Develops a sense of responsibility to the organisation for being competent
and knowledgeable
74
 Improves labour-management relations

 Reduces outside consulting costs by utilising competent internal consultation
 Stimulates preventive management as opposed to putting out fires
 Eliminates sub optimal behavior (such as hiding tools)
 Creates an appropriate climate for growth, communication
 Aids in improving organizational communication
 Helps employees adjust to change
 Aids in handling conflict, thereby helping to prevent stress and tension.
Benefits to the individual

 Helps the individual in making better decisions and effective problem
solving
 Through training and development, motivational variables of recognition,
achievement, growth, responsibility and advancement are internalized and
operationalised
 Aids in encouraging and achieving self-development and self-confidence
 Helps a person handle stress, tension, frustration and conflict
 Provides information for improving leadership, knowledge, communication
skills and attitudes
 Increases job satisfaction and recognition
 Moves a person towards personal goals which improving interactive skills
 Satisfies personal needs of the trainer (and trainee)
 Provides the trainee an avenue for growth and a say in his/her own future
 Develops a sense of growth in learning
 Helps a person develop speaking and listening skills; also writing skills when
exercises are required
 Helps eliminate fear in attempting new tasks
Benefits in Personnel and Human Relations, Intragroup

and intergroup Relations and Policy Implementation
 Improves communication between groups and individuals
 Aids in orientation for new employee and those taking new jobs through
transfer or promotion
 Provides information on equal opportunity and affirmative action
 Provides information on other government laws and administrative policies
 Improves interpersonal skills
 Makes organizational policies, rules and regulations viable
 Improves morale
 Builds cohesiveness in groups
75
 Provides a good climate for learning, growth, and co-ordination

 Makes the organisation a better place to work and live.
(Source: from M.J. Tessin, “Once Again, Why Training?” Training, Feb. 1978,
p.7.)
LESSON-FIVE
DEVELOPMENT OF COMPETENCY – BASED TRAINING PROGRAM
Many organisations are realizing the need of having people who can innovate,
think ahead, and provide new direction. This is a new area, which is gaining
significance because of need to move in different and newer areas of growth.
Organisation which have stagnated for long, need to identify certain individuals
who are creative and show potential for innovation for innovation and send them
to special training program designed to realise the new competencies. These
programs do not necessarily meet the job related requirement but are designed to
induce certain special talents. Programs on creativity, innovativeness and the like
are now offered by many agencies.
Most discussion on the subjects of training generally deliberates on its relevance
from the point of view of organisation. Little attempts are made to study what
the participants want from such training program. In one such attempt Mr Kalra
(1972) collected data on participant’s objective in attending training program.
His result shows that participants want the training program to help them to
develop technical skills, managerial skills and communication skills. In a similar
attempts, Srinivasan (1977) collected data on trainees, focusing on the individual
motivation for attending training program. The study highlighted two areas—
career development and continuous education.
7 Steps to Ensuring Competency Based Training Programs.
76
Recently there have been a number of organizations who have implemented

competency based training programs with varying degrees of success, there are
seven steps we can take to increase the probability of a competent outcome.
1.Set a goal of ending up with ten or fewer core competencies

To develop an enduring and functional program we need to focus
on identifying a small core set of competencies that differentiate
we star managers from everyone else. Ideally if we have multiple
lines of business and/or operate globally, this core should apply
across the board. More than ten or so competencies will result in
a process too unwieldy to work effectively. Keep in mind the
core will normally be supplemented by two or three technical or
knowledge specific competencies for particular job family
applications.
2. Make sure that you have top management

An effective competency based management development
program will end up touching every aspect of your organization.
Unless we have visible clear support from our CEO and key
management, no matter how sound the program is and the level
of ‘ground swell’ you think you can create; it will be doomed to
joining other program binders on the shelf.
3.Enlist top management in defining the repr esentative behaviors

for each competency
Once you have come up with the core set of competencies you
will need to build a defining set of behavioral statements to
support each competency. The easiest way to do this is through
your top managers. Ask them to provide two or three specific
77
behavioral examples for each competency that are exemplary of

their best performers.
4.Validate the competencies across all micro-cultures in the

organization
Even though you (hopefully) have relied on management to help
you build and review both the competencies and related
behaviors, you will want to ask specific managers from each of
your business units and across your geographic regions to review
the final material for applicability in their area. This helps to
avoid superficial acceptance of a ‘corporate’ built program that
they don’t intend on using because it does not work in their
setting.
5. Build ALL HR programs around the same competencies

A critical step to having a competent program is integrating the
core competencies into all of your HR processes. Ultimately this
means that your recruiting, selection, assessment, performance
management, training, promotion, development and succession
planning and reward systems all should be based on the same
core competencies. Too many organizations use one set of
competencies for selection, another for promotion, yet another or
even none for succession planning, etc. This ends up being
confusing for your employees and frequently results in very
mixed messages as to what is valued at the organization.
6. Test for better result-
78
As you build each of the HR programs it pays to start with a

limited try out in the field to make sure that all of the
instructions, forms, programming routines work from the end-
user’s perspective as you intended. This is particularly important
where one process is interdependent on another. For example in
succession planning you would need to have performance
instruments done first before you could identify bench strength
based on the core competencies across your key management.
Or, if you have a training program linked to evaluations on each
competency, you will want to make sure that scoring profiles link
up with the correct modules.
7. Revisit as organization mission and vision changes

We should consider revising a behavior and/or competency
when either it is hard to understand, frequently misapplied,
misevaluated, or no longer relevant due to a change in the
organization’s business focus. The job specific technical or
knowledge competencies that complement the core competencies
may change with greater frequency based on the level of
sophistication or technological dependency of the specific job.
For example think of the rapid changes in knowledge
competencies for individuals involved in computer related jobs
over the past few years.
These seven steps will help us to develop a competency-based program that

works because it captures the essence of your organization. The process is
certainly involved but should result in an integrated and focused foundation for
79
all of your HR programs. If we are just beginning or considering starting, I

would highly recommend you talk with several individuals who have a
competency based program in place at their respective organizations. Find out
what works and what does not in each of their systems. “Lessons learned” can
save you and your organization a tremendous amount of time, effort and money!
Competency Management has extensive experience in designing and
implementing highly effective competency-based programs in any organisation
for better result and growth and prosperity.
80
UNIT – III
METHODS OF TRAINING
LESSION – 1
BROAD CLASSIFICATION AND
SELECTION OF TRAINING METHODS
OBJ ECTIVES
Objectives of this lesson are to
i) have introduction about training and development
ii) specify different purposes of training
iii) explain on the job training with advantages and
disadvantages
iv) describe the merits and demerits of off the job training
v) study the procedure for choosing optimum method
vi) consider different factors for selection of suitable
method
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The quality of employees and their development through training and education
are major factors, which provide long-term benefit to an organization. It is good
policy to invest in the development of the skills of employees, so they can
increase their productivity. Training often is considered for new employees only.
This is a mistake because ongoing training for existing employees helps them in
adjusting to rapidly changing job requirements. The difference between the
training methods lies mainly in terms of the personal involvement or
participation of trainees in the process of learning.
81
1. Purpose of Training
Reasons for emphasizing the growth and development of personnel in an
organization are related to the following purposes.
 Creating a pool of readily available and adequate replacements
for
personnel who may leave or move up in the organization.
 Enhancing the company's ability to adopt and use advances in
technology because of a sufficiently knowledgeable staff.
 Building a more efficient, effective and highly motivated
team, which
enhances the company's competitive position and improves employee
morale.
 Ensuring adequate human resources for expansion into new programs.
 Increased productivity.
 Reduced employee turnover.
 Increased efficiency resulting in financial gains.
 Decreased need for supervision.
Employees frequently develop a greater sense of self-worth, dignity and well

being as they become more valuable to the firm and to society. Generally they
will receive a greater share of the material gains that result from their increased
productivity. These factors give them a sense of satisfaction through the
achievement of personal and organisational goals.
Training is required for effectiveness in the performance of work. The objective
of training is to develop some specific skill in an individual. This is related to
both knowledge and action. There is a range of training methods with
advantages & disadvantages. Each method of training has special relevance for a
training programme. There are four broad classifications of training methods
available for training in an organization. These are related to on the job, off the
job, skill development and attitude. Though, there cannot be any strict
82
separation, still then different methods of training can be grouped according to

the stated relation.
1.2 ON THE J OB TRAINING

On the job training is delivered to employees while they perform their regular
jobs. In this way, they do not lose time while they are learning. After a plan is
developed for what should be taught, employees should be informed of the
details. A timetable should be established with periodic evaluations to inform
employees about their progress.
On the job techniques include orientations, job instruction training,
apprenticeships, internships and assistantships, job rotation and coaching. This is
the most common method of training. The trainee is placed on the job and the
manager or mentor shows the trainee how to do the job.
To be successful, the training should be done according to a structured program
that uses task lists, job breakdowns, and performance standards as a lesson plan.
The training can be made extremely specific to the requirement of employees. It
is highly practical and reality-based. It also helps the employee establish
important relationships with his or her supervisor or mentor.
On the job training (OJT) is an activity undertaken at the workplace which is
designed to improve the skill or knowledge of an individual. OJT is a well-
established and well-used method designed to enhance individual skills and
capabilities with the characteristics of:
 being delivered on one-to-one basis and taking place at the workplace

of trainees
 requiring time to take place, including potential periods when there is
little or no useful output of products or services
 being specified, planned and structured activity.
83
It is difficult to be precise on the extent or incidence of OJT in the modern

economy as different definitions are used in different surveys. Fine distinctions
(eg between OJT and informal learning), may not be immediately recognised, or
seem important, in the workplace. Additionally much OJT, taking place as it does
as part of day-to-day activity at the trainee's workplace, is not recorded centrally.
OJT is dependent upon the trainer having sufficient knowledge and expertise to
impart to the trainee. OJT is important and the quality of OJT can be
considerably improved through effective design. In this method the learning
process takes place as a result of interaction among the coworkers, superiors,
subordinates, and feedback available during the performance of work in an
organisation. This method has the following important advantages and
disadvantages.
1. Advantages
On the job training method has the following important advantages for
consideration
 Training can be delivered at the optimum time.
 The trainee will have opportunities to practice.
 The trainee will have immediate feedback.
 Training is delivered by colleagues by integrating the trainee into the
team.
 Trainee develops confidence by working with own speed and
productivity.
1.2.1 Disadvantages
84
Some important disadvantages of on the job method are stated below for
taking precautions.
 There is a tendency to fit OJT in when it is convenient for office routine
rather than at the optimum time for learning.
 The training may be given piecemeal and not properly planned, and the
trainee gains a fragmented picture of the organisation.
 Too much training can be delivered in one session leading to
'information overload' and trainee fatigue.
 The trainer may not have sufficient knowledge of the process or
expertise in instructional techniques.
 If immediate practice is not accompanied by feedback the trainee can
feel abandoned after the initial experience.
3. OFF THE J OB TRAINING

Off the job training involves employees taking training courses away from their
place of work. This is often also referred to as "formal training". Off the job
training courses may be run by the training department or institute of an
organization or by an external organization or institution. Off-the-job training
include lectures, special study, films, television conferences or discussions, case
studies, role playing, simulation, programmed instruction laboratory training etc.
Most of these techniques can be used for effective training, although some may
be too costly. This method has some of the following important advantages and
disadvantages.
1. Merits
Off the job training method has the following important merits to be considered.
 Use of specialist trainers and accommodation
 Employee can focus on the training - and not be distracted by work
85
 Opportunity to mix with employees from other businesses
1.3.2 Demerits
Off the job training method has the following important demerits.
 Employee needs to be motivated to learn
 May not be directly relevant to the employee's job
 Costs (transport, course fees, fees, materials,
examination accommodation)
4. CHOOSING OPTIMUM METHOD

The selection of a method depends upon the skill requirement, size of the
organization, time & money available for training, experience & competencies
of the trainer and training practices followed by an organization. All the
resources at the command must be used to make instruction real and vital for
the trainees.
Some important aspects to be remembered while choosing optimum method are
motivation, active involvement, individual approach, sequence, structure and
feedback with different degrees as high, medium and low. Sequencing and
structuring of training programmes are important to provide the impact and
consequent results. The number and types of training methods to be used during
any presentation depend on many factors.
1. Factors for Selection

Choosing optimum method of training depends upon the following important
factors.
 Experience, qualification and capability of the trainer.
 Intelligence, qualification, age and experience of trainees.
86
 Social and cultural environment required for training

 Availability of time, resources and infrastructure facilities.
 Objectives to be achieved through provision of training.
LESSION – 2
ON THE J OB RELATED METHODS
OBJ ECTIVES
This lesson has some important objectives to be
consideration before adoption in an organization.
i) explain in-basket method
ii) describe team task method of training
iii) discuss about buzz group with benefits & activities
iv) state syndicate with function, advantages & trainer
There are many methods available relating to on the job for training of
employees. Some of the important on the job related methods are presented in the
following paragraphs.
2.1 IN-BASKET
In-Basket is a simulation exercise, which enables assessment of the capabilities
of potential employees to discharge the responsibility of the concerned position.
This method is related to simulation of the workload of a manager on a typical
day. The name is derived from the IN and OUT trays found on the table of an
executive.
In this method the participants is required to assume the role of a manager of an
organization. Then he is presented with some problems in the form of letters,
memos & memoranda put in the IN tray & take appropriate action within a
limited time.
2.1.1 Real Life Action
The limitation on time is the most important fact of the whole training exercise
as it stimulates the real life situation, where a manager is always expected to take
a timely action. In order to complete the assignment in time, the player is forced
to set priorities and delegate some of the work to subordinates. He has to take
action just like a manager in the real life and write notes to complete the
87
exercise. Under this method there is a procedure, which allows the participants to
explain their actions.
2. Contents
This method consists of set of instructions, contents of the in-basket and notes
for the guidance of instructor conducting the program. It effectively enhances
skills in decision-making and problem solving activities. This training can be
designed to focus on the activities related to managerial positions. This can be
altered according to the training requirement. Sometimes this method is
expensive to conduct training programmes. There should be provision for
availability of two baskets for in and out activities involved in this training
programme for use of the participants.
3. Merits
In-basket method of training has the following merits
 It is related to the real life situation
 It focuses on the managerial activities
 This method can be adjusted according to requirement
 The method is helpful for assessing specific dimensions
2.1.4 Dmerits
The in basket method has the following important demerits.
 The game is considered expensive for the management
 It may be difficult to administer for the trainer
 This is a timetaking process for the participants
 It is essentially individual expertise related work
2.2 TEAM TASKS
Differ ent teams can be for med to per for m var ious tasks or
activities, str uctur ed or unstr uctur ed, in which the end r esult
may be pr incipally the completion of task, or other
wise
obser vation or discussion of of the inter active pr ocess involved.
Some of these activities can be per for med by an individual, in
a
self- instr uction appr oach, but many r equir e inter action of
the
88
gr oup to pr oduce lear ning possibilities. Two highly str uctur ed

task gr oup activities ar e action mazes and in-basket exer cises.
2.2.1 Activities Involved
Team task roles are behaviour that help the group solve its problem or
accomplish its tasks. These roles include initiator to start discussion, suggest new
ideas and solution. The information or opinion seeker asks for information from
other members and tries to elicit their opinion. The information or opinion
giver provides information and shares his own opinion with others. The clarifier
expands on ideas of others by giving examples and explanations. The
coordinator helps in integrating and summarizing the ideas of other members.
The orientor suggests the direction for further discussion and defines the goal or
objective of discussion.
2.3 BUZZ GROUPS
The natural followup to many group activities is that the trainer discusses the
activity with the group members, concentrating on either the task or the process,
or sometimes even attemting both. A principale aim of the trainer is that rthe
grpups should provide most of the this discusion. But perticularly in the very
early stages of a course, the participants may be unable or unwilling to express
thensleves openly.
It is possible that in the early stages, the barriors are too strong to permitt
individualsto express views which are critical of themselves or others in the
group, or the way group has perform the task. At a later stage of the course, this
is more likely to happen as open realtionships develop. Sufficient care and
planning is necessary for the trainer and trainees to follow this training
programme in an organisation.
2.3.1 Benefits
89
A buzz group can allow an individual to retain annonimity in the group, since the
spokesman of the buzz group will express the view of group instead of
individual. However an individual can also express a personal view if he/she
wishes do so. There can be use of the buzz group method with as few as six,
sending into two buzz groups of three people. This approach was used following
the first activity of a course in which it is necessary to encourage the participants
to involve themselves in open discussion at an early stage.
2.3.2 Activities
During the full group discusion that followed, comments were made on group
and individual performance that would have ben much less early if the full
group had entered discusion immidiately after the activity. Infact, the immidiate
full group discussion approach had been the norm untill that perticualr course
and buzz groups were introduced because of the group inhibitions experienced.
The previous method is not revived.
The main objective of brain storming is to generate as amny ideas as possible
within the time fixed for the event. In this method no immidiate discussion or
evaluation of any idea is allowed. The trainer encourages the members to
produce ideas. Once all ideas have been extracted the task of brain storming
groups is over. ssesment and evalution of the ideas can follow by either by same
group or by a different group.
This is a technique valuable for strating a course in order to get the members
feeling that they have open thoughtts. It is ofen useful for the course participants
to be prepare for brain storming with a practiacl session on lateral thinkin lead by
the trainer. This will encourage the generation of ideas which will continue for
consideration of more serious issues.
90
4. SYNDICATES
Grouping the participants of different background usually forms the syndicates.
A syndicate may consist of six or seven participants. By following this method
there can be efficient performance of work in small groups to achieve required
purpose in time. In this method there is correct implementation & much more
learning. The essence of this method is that participants learn from each other
and contribute their own experience to the maximum extent. This method is
suitable for training and development of executives with considerable
experience.
1. Function
The participants are divided into different groups consisting of about ten
participants. These groups are called syndicates. Each syndicate functions as a
team to represent various functional and interest areas. The syndicates are given
assignments to be finished with a report. By rotation each member of the
syndicate becomes the leader.
Each syndicate is placed under a member of the training staff. The report
submitted by one syndicate is circulated to other syndicates for critical
evaluation. The chairman of each syndicate is required to present the view of his
team on the task assigned to them at a joint session of all the groups.
2. Advantages
The advantage of this method is that the analysis & ideas are tested in the small
groups for their validity before they are presented before the whole class. For the
practicing managers this method is helpful to have new concepts, techniques &
information. Working in syndicate involves interaction over an extended period
of time and living together.
If the syndicate is not structured properly it lead to lot of waste and cause
frustration. The role of directive staff by this method is very crucial. This
method enables to participants to acquire proper perspective on the related job in
91
relation to the activities in other areas. The availability of outside exports can
help supplement the work in syndicates.
3. Disadvantages
The negligence of the directing staff may convert the syndicate method to an
exercise in futility. Due to improper structure of syndicate, there may be wastage
of time and frustration for the participants. This method may lead to dispute due
to difference in opinion of the participants.
4. Role of Tr ainer
In this method the role of a trainer is not to participate directly in the group his
role is quiet inactive during the training session where he is resource person. He
may decide on the group composition, the topics to be assigned to the group and
to give attention towards the confused participants. The syndicate method
includes the division of course members into a number of smaller groups called
syndicates for the purpose of considering a case study for the problem solving
activity. Each group is given the same problem to solve. Alternatively each
group may be given different problem. The trainer acts as the adjudicator in case
of difference between the groups. Another approach is to balance the different
views expressed to a common conclusion.
92
LESSION – 3
OFF THE J OB RELATED METHODS
OBJ ECTIVES
This lesson has some important objectives

to
i) explain lecture method with
features & considerations
ii) describe team task method of
training
iii) state buzz groups with benefits
and activities
iv) present syndicate with function,
advantages & role of trainer
v) discuss about field trip method
of training
vi) explain panel discussion with
points to remember
vii) describe case studies with
design, merits & demerits
viii) discuss about action maze
method of training
1. INTRODUCTION
Off the job training involves employees taking training courses away from their
place of work. This is often also referred to as "formal training". Some important
off the job related training methods are discussed below.
2. LECTURE
Lectures present training material verbally and are used when the goal is to
present a great deal of material to many people within short time. It is more cost
effective to deliver lecture to a group of participants than to train people
individually. Lecturing is one-way communication and as such may not be very
effective way to train. In this method of training, it is difficult to ensure that all
trainees understand the topic on the same level. Despite these drawbacks,
lecturing is the most cost-effective way of reaching large number of trainees.
1. Features
This method is one of the old and basic training methods. More and more
training institutions are applying the lecture method for training. In this method
the trainer is active where as the trainees are passive. Though lecture method is
not very much effective, some extent of informal lecture is inherent in the
conduct of any training program to motivate trainees, provide explanation &
analyze relevant exercises.
2. Considerations
The background, age, cultural difference, knowledge of subject, level of
education, likes & dislikes of the audience should be considered for this method
of training. More over the purpose of training & basic understanding of the
trainees can make lecture method of training effective. Under this method the
time available is an important consideration. It is necessary for the trainer to
speak from his own experience and knowledge as per the requirement of
trainees. The contents of lecture should be simple, brief and to the point. The
main theme of the lecture has to be developed in logical sequence. It is necessary
to start with simple concepts and progress towards difficult topics.
3. Role of Tr ainer
The trainer should arrive at the specified place in time to check the arrangements
for training. There should be proper standing posture for the trainer to maintain
eye contact with different segments of the audience. A Lecture who gives
attention to all parts of the audience uniformly is more successful. The speaker
should be sincere, courteous and enthusiastic for the lecture.
Making optimum use of time should be important consideration for the resource
person to deliver lecture. The trainer must have proper planning of the lecture to
94
create interest among the trainees by including examples, questions and humour
according to requirement in the lecture to be delivered.
4. Merits
The lecture method of training has the following important merits to be
consideration for adoption of the training method.
 This method is effective to train large number of trainees within limited
time available
 Delivery of lecture is useful for communication of basic theoretical
knowledge to the learners
 Lecture method is convenient to have one-way transfer of information
without any interaction
 Lecture method is less expensive for an organisation
5. Demerits
The lecture method of training has the following important demerits.
 There may not be any scope for clarification of difficult parts of
the lecture for the participants
 Repeated lectures may produce staleness and monotony resulting
in less absorption of knowledge by trainees
 It becomes difficult to have proper feedback from the learners by
following lecture method of training
3. FIELD TRIPS
Field trips can be valuable training method for many organizations. But
sometimes there are risks and hazards, some of which may be unacceptable.
Faculty members who are planning to conduct field trips should perform their
own risk analysis and take sufficient precautions during the preparation. They
should have proper planning to determine the procedure of the field trip for
achieving the learning objectives.
4. PANEL DISCUSSION
95
A panel provides several points of view on a topic to seek alternatives to a

situation. Panel members may have differing views but they must also have
objective concerns for the purpose of the training. This is an excellent method for
using outside resource people. This method can be used for small group of 20 or
less and the members know each other and the material can be assimilated
readily with some prior knowledge. Division into groups can also be used to
provide discussion opportunities in smaller associations of trainees. This will
allow a silent trainee to have the opportunity to say something.
3.4.1 Points to Remember
There must be proper reason for the discussion and this could be to allow
separated discussion of a common subject or different subjects with common
theme. When the groups are engaged for useful discussion topic, the purpose of
the group is to consider the translation of the learning to the work of participants.
Trainees often find it interesting to hear different points of view. The process
invites employees to share their opinions and they are challenged to consider
alternatives. It requires a great deal of preparation. The results of the method can
be difficult to evaluate.
3.5 CASE STUDIES
A case is objective description of a real life situation in case of which, the
participants are required to take appropriate decision. The training method
relating to case studies is excellent for developing analytical skill. Case studies
are usually organized around one or more problems confronted by an
organization. Common case study provides the learner group al necessary
information relating to the organisation and the problem for study. The group of
trainees can be provided with a problem or series of problems to find out
solutions for the problem.
3.5.1 DESIGN
96
A case describes the problem area and contains sufficient additional information
about the company. Cases are designed primarily to solve different problems
relating to an organization. The trainees are expected to prepare each case in
advance by analyzing available fax, identifying major issues, exploring
alternative courses of action and finally taking a decision on the basis of their
analysis. This method can be dynamic and powerful approach for trainees.
A case study is a description of a real or imagined situation which contains
information that trainees can use to analyze what has occurred and why. The
case study provides learning situation, which depends on involvement and
participation in group discussion for its success. The trainees recommend
solutions based on the content provided.
3.5.2 Mer its and Demer its A case study can
present a real-life situation, which lets trainees to
consider what they would do. It can present a wide
variety of skills in which applying
knowledge is important. It helps in finding number
of alternative solutions suggested by the participants
for the problems included in the case. Cases may be
difficult to prepare and time-consuming to discuss.
The trainer must be creative and very skilled at
leading discussions, making points, and keeping
trainees on track. All participants should take active
part for the success of case study. This method is
very helpful for effective training of the participants
to develop the practice of taking correct decisions
on the basis of analysis of different cases. The
merits and demerits of this method should be
considered for successful conduct of the training
programme with required previous arrangements.
3.6 ACTION MAZES
97
In this type of training, each individual is given an information sheet with details
of the situation, which can be a technical problem or an interpersonal problem.
At the end of the first information, the person is asked to make a decision based
on the facts given upto that stage. Usually a choice between a number of actions
is given. The particular choice leads the learner to the next type of information,
at the end of which there is a further choice to make. Each learner can proceed at
his own pace and the skill posessed can determine the time taken by individual
to move through the maze. The individual having good grasp of the principles
involved can reach the final decision very quickly, having made the correct
choices. The unskilled trainee is likely to make a number of inappropriate
choices and will take a circular path to reach the end. Under this type of training,
the trainees can absorb the correct methods or attitudes from their mistakes.
LESSION – 4
SKILL DEVELOPMENT TRAINING METHODS

OBJ ECTIVES
This lesson has some objectives to
i)have introduction of skill development training methods
ii)explain transactional analysis method of training
iii)discuss about simulations
iv)state clinics with role of director
v)show data gathering with benefits & features
vi)present incident process incident investigation & critical incident vii)
study role play with single role, double role, role rotation, reverse role
and hot role
viii) discuss about metaphor method of training
ix) explain interactive demonstrations with steps involved.
98
INTRODUCTION
There are some training methods followed for the development of skill and
capabilities of the existing & new employees. So that, there can be improvement
of the efficiency of the employees. Some selected skill development training
methods are presented in the following paragraphs.
4.1 TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS
This type of training method is helpful to eradicate or minimize the
dysfunctional aspects of personality, developed from critical assumptions
assimilated during childhood. The life script is a basic concept of transactional
analysis. The programme for transactional analysis may vary from one day to
five days.
This method of training enables participants to develop interpersonal
competencies to improve relationships with self and others for changing their
behaviour appropriately to optimize interrelationships. As far as possible, the
trainer must operate from adult state and not be personally involved in
transactions between participants. The trainer must have expert knowledge of
transactional analysis before interpretation of behaviour.
4.1.1 Role of Trainer
The trainer should interpret group behaviour in terms of ego states of the
participants. He should not be personally involved in the transactions between
trainees. He should have specialized knowledge of the theory and practice relate
to the transactional analysis.
4.3 SIMULATIONS
Trainees participate in a reality-based, interactive activity where they imitate
actions required on the job. It is a useful technique for skills development.
Training becomes more reality-based, as trainees are actively involved in the
learning process. It directly applies to jobs performed after training. Simulations
involve yet another learning style, increasing the chance that trainees will retain
what they have learned. Simulations are time-consuming. The trainer must be
very skilled and make sure that trainees practice the skills correctly. Only perfect
practice makes perfect.
In simulation training, the trainees act for situations in which they assume the
personality and positions of some one else. The success of stimulation training
depends upon other training innovations and relies on the continued patience of
99
the enthusiastic participants having willingness to share insights and ideas with
others. Simulation game increases interaction among the trainees from divergent
socio-economic background. It provides an active, verbal and physical learning
environment to increase the motivation of learners.
4.4 CLINICS
These guidelines are intended to aid clinic directors in appropriate, effective and
ethical leadership of university-based psychology training clinics. Psychology
clinics are clinical settings designed to provide students the best possible training
in professional psychology. Clinics are the focus of competing interests, each
with different demands and goals. These interests include the university’s broad
policies and educational goals, standards of deans, department chairs and
directors of clinical training, the needs and interests of faculty, of students, and
of accrediting bodies.
The challenge for clinic directors is to negotiate and reconcile these competing
interests while sustaining the core standards, values and purposes of the clinic.
Required guidelines may be formulated to assist directors in their roles,
recognizing that effective leadership is supported and strengthened by explicit
statement of essential guidelines for the operation of clinics.
4.4.1 Role of Director
Clinic directors are responsible for the proper operation of the clinic, including
adherence to ethical and legal standards of professional conduct and patient care.
The key feature of the clinic director’s role is her/his responsibility to guarantee
high standards of clinical training and clinical practice. Clinic directors must
have authority requisite to discharging these responsibilities, including
appropriate authority over the work of staff, students and supervisors; as
necessary, this authority should be exercised in consultation with and assisted by
appropriate university bodies and authorities.
100
5. Data-Gathering
All reporting libraries gather data about their customers, both actively (e.g.,
focus groups) and passively. The most used data-gathering methods are surveys,
with exit surveys in fairly common use: these are typically done yearly or bi-
yearly. Electronic suggestion and comment boxes are also common because they
have the benefit of being available to customers all the time. Some use focus
groups at least annually, but for others the technique has been used sparingly and
only for very specific purposes (e.g., to refine a survey of undergraduate
students or to assess customer satisfaction with photocopy services).
1. Benefits
The potential benefits of organized customer service programs are many. A
strong philosophy of service that is understood by all staff can guide day-to-day
performance and performance evaluation systems. Training based on that
philosophy can provide an important means of improving services on a
continual basis. Gathering and using data about customer experiences--both
successes and failures--is likely to raise the quality of service and the
satisfaction of customers. Although some find customer service philosophies or
guidelines marginally useful, many have seen them as a key ingredient in their
programs.
2. Features
Although formally organized customer service programs are familiar feature of
day-to-day lives, they are relatively recent arrivals in academic research
libraries. Moreover, where they exist, the programs are uneven in intensity.
Several libraries have committed themselves seriously to the approach--
101
incorporating it pervasively into their training, performance expectation,

evaluation, and reward systems. Others are still at early stages of development,
incorporating a few characteristics and experimenting with techniques such as
focus groups.
Because it represents a significant cultural shift, continued growth of such

programs is likely to be measured. Though the advent of customer service
programs in libraries reflects commonplace developments in the private sector,
academia may be skeptical about taking on such new ventures. It is a
development that gets mixed reviews in libraries.
4.6 INCIDENT PROCESS

A series of sequential incidence can be used for skill learning. Particiapnts are
given the first incident and taken through three steps. First step is realted to
moving from symptons to the underline issues. Second step is related to
predictions as the effectiveness epends upon anticipatry proactive management.
Third step is related actions based upon analysis and predictions. Then the
second incident is issued. First participant can compare the precidctions and
action suggestions with actual happening. The participant goes through the
sequence of the same three activities on incident to and show on. About three to
four incident sequences seem to be optimal. The incidents can be in terms of
skills of analysis, diaognsis, predictions, actions and contigency planning.
4.6.1 Incident Investigation
Under this method the employer should take immediate steps to investigate
incident as soon as possible but not later than 48 hours after the event. The expert
investigation team should be formed, including at least one person
knowledgeable in the process involved, and others with knowledge & experience
to investigate the incident. After the analysis, a written report on the
102
incident should be developed. Reports for different incidents must be retained for
five years for future reference.
4.6.2 Critical Incident
Tr aining agenda is designed to pr ovide par ticipants with the
latest infor mation on Cr itical Incident Str ess Management
techniques and post-tr auma syndr omes. The pr ogr am
emphasizes a br oadening of the knowledge base concer ning cr
itical incident str ess inter ventions as well as Post Tr aumatic Str
ess Disor der established in the Basic pr ogr am and/or
publications. Specifically, the pr ogr am addr esses concepts that
ar e the foundation of Defusing and Cr itical Incident Str ess
Debr iefings with an emphasis on advanced techniques for
complex cr isis situations. In addition, this method discusses the
pathological consequences of tr aumatic str ess and the theor
etical basis and r esear ch evidence.
4.7 ROLE PLAY
Role-play is defined as educational technique in which some problem, involving
human interactions, real or imaginary is presented for spontaneous action. There
is active participation of the trainees in role-play method of training. It permits
training in the control of feelings and emotions.
Role-play method can be broadly classified into two categories, such as
structured role-play &spontaneous role-play. During a role-play, the trainees
assume roles and act out situations connected to the learning concepts. It is good
for customer service and sales training. Trainees can learn possible results of
certain behaviors in a classroom situation. They get an opportunity to practice
people skills.
103
It is possible to experiment with many different approaches to a situation without

alienating any actual customers. A lot of time is spent making a single point.
Trainers must be skilled and creative in helping the class learn from the
situation. In some role-play situations, only a few people get to practice while
others watch.
4.7.1 Single Role-play
This is widely used for m of r ole-play, which consists of two or thr
ee playing out r oles infr ont of a class. It is ver y help full to
demonstr ate the way of solving some pr oblems or to show the
complications r elated to the pr oblems if not solved. It allows the
enir e class to examine in depth all the dynamics & complexities
involved when individuals attempt to solve a pr oblem. Some
player s may feel embar r assed to play r ole in fr ont of other s.
3.7.2 Double Role-play
In this method all trainees are required to play roles. All the trainees are required
to be kept in some groups for specific role-play. Each player required to play a
specific role or act as an observer at the same time. It allows all the trainees to
participate in the role-play. It causes no embarrassment to the players and reduce
the problems related to ineffective role-play.
3. Role Rotation
Under this method one person play a role. Other trainees are required to play the
role one after the other. In this method participants feel less embarrassed & more
willing. It demonstrates wide Varity of styles in which different individuals try to
solve the problem.
4. Reverse Role Play
An excellent method for developing a salesperson's skills at learning customer
needs is through role playing. The reverse role playing consists of acting out the
customer-salesperson relationship by the salespeople. One person plays the part
of the customers, and the other plays the part of the salesperson. Next time
around, they reverse the roles. Role playing enables salespeople to see various
104
sales situations from the customers' point of view. The skill necessary to quickly
"size up" customers (learn about their needs) is rapidly sharpened through role
playing. A particularly good time for you to try out this method is during slow
periods when your salespeople are just "standing around" anyway.
4.7.5 HOT ROLE
Hot role-play provokes the trainees for the changed expectations. There should
be much interaction between the trainer and the trainees. For training of
salesmen, there may be scenes with specific audience involvement, focus on
customer service, effective communication, identification of real customers,
satisfaction of their requirements, acting as united work force and facing
challenges.
8. METAPHORS
In organizations and groups people have assigned or formal roles: director, chief
financial officer, manager of a department, the chairperson of a meeting, the
person who takes the minutes and so on. These roles come with a formal job
description.
In addition to the formal role people also occupy informal roles in the groups
and organizations they are part of: the person who always asks critical questions,
the one who is focused only on practical details, the person who will always
volunteer first, the one who is always in crisis, the emotional one and so on. The
Metaphor Method for Role Analysis, helps participants of an existing group to
discover what their informal role is and how their informal role influences the
formal role they hold. Greater awareness of these informal roles is a help to both
individuals and the whole group, leads to better collaboration and consequently
aids in the task.
9. INTERACTIVE DEMONSTRATIONS
An interactive session combines live product demonstrations by the trainer and
hands-on practice for the trainee. These sessions are effective for successful
training. Because, the participants are trained by five learning styles. They hear
105
from the trainer, then look at the demonstrations, they may touch, feel and
perform the same work by practice.
For this method of training audio and video equipments should be available with
facility for demonstrations. This method is helpful for the trainees for the new
product or service or new trainees for existing product and service. Under this
type of training, the trainees can learn in detail and inform others about the
product or service.
4.9.1 Steps Involved

If more than one product is to be trained in a row, time must be allowed for short
breaks in between sessions.There is no maximum number, however 10 - 15
trainees may be ideal as each trainee will get individual attention .
Demonstration is very effective for basic skills training. The trainer shows
trainees how to do something.
The trainer may provide an opportunity for trainees to perform the task being
demonstrated. It requires a great deal of trainer preparation and planning. There
is also need for adequate space for the training to take place. If the trainer is not
skilled in the task being taught, poor work habits can be learned by the trainee. A
demonstration training session involves the trainer demonstrating the features of
the product as the trainees observe.
LESSION – 5
ATTITUDINAL TRAINING
METHODS OBJ ECTIVES

This lesson has the objectives to be consideration before selection of any
method of training in an organisation
106
i) have introduction attitudinal training

about
methods
ii)explain brain storming with process
iii)discuss about behaviour modeling iv)
state jigsaw method with
activities and assignments involved
v) present fish bowl method and role of trainer
vi) show different types of T groups for training
vii) explain data gathering with benefits
viii) discuss about grouping method of training
ix) state business game with benefits and role of
trainer
1. INTRODUCTION
There are training methods related to the attitude of the participants of training
programmes. The specific method should be selected according to the attitude
of the participants in an organization. Some important attitudinal training
methods are explained in the following paragraphs for comparative analysis for
the correct selection.
2. BRAIN STORMING
Brainstorming with a group of people is a powerful technique. Brainstorming
creates new ideas, solves problems, motivates and develops
teams.
Brainstorming motivates because it involves members of a team in bigger
management issues, and it gets a team working together. However, brainstorming
is not simply a random activity.
Brainstorming needs to be structured and it follows brainstorming rules. For the
brainstorming process, there is need of a flip-chart. File being used for problem
solving, the brain storming session can be helpful in developing attitude of
107
openness, freedom, tolerance of ambiguity, mutual respect and resource

utilisation.
This is crucial as brainstorming needs to involve the team, which means that
everyone must be able to see what's happening. Brainstorming places a
significant burden on the facilitator to manage the process, people's involvement
and sensitivities, and then to manage the follow up actions. The following
process may be followed for this method.
5.2.1 Process
1. Define and agree the objective.
2. Brainstorm ideas and suggestions having agreed a time limit.
3. Categorise/condense/combine/refine.
4. Assess/analyse effects or results.
5. Prioritise options/rank list as appropriate.
6. Agree action and timescale.
7. Control and monitor follow-up.
5.3 BEHAVIOUR MODELING
"Give a fish to a man, and he will eat for a day; teach him to fish, and he will eat
for the rest of his life. The philosophy is very significant to highlight the role of a
teacher as changer of lives of many persons. It is a philosophy that leads many
individuals, to become instructor for adults. This method of instruction embodies
the component of learning by action and through behaviour.
It shows that human learning takes place in the absence of direct experience.
The behaviour must be performed by the learner him/herself. First, modeling is
the direct presentation of the behavior by a model. Second, retention processes
refer to the internal memory devices the learner uses to assimilate the observed
behavior and remember the process. Third, behavioral rehearsal takes place when
the learner attempts to reproduce the behavior previously modeled.
108
Feedback, as provided by the trainer and other learners, is necessary for the
learner to check for learning and to modify the behavioral process. Finally,
transfer of training refers to the efforts of the model and trainer to make the
desired behavior rehearsal resemble the actual work place or job as much as
possible.
4. J IGSAWS
The Jigsaw is another method of training followed when there is too much
information for one person to read or absorb. It encourages reading or listening
salient points included in the training programme. This method is helpful to
develop effective practice for communicating critical points to others. Jigsaw
provides different perspectives on information. It can be particularly helpful to
second language learners.
1. Activities
Jigsaw is a group structure that can be used across all content areas. Training
starts with a home group. That group is responsible for learning the assigned
portion of a task that is prescribed by the instructor. Then the instructor separates
trainees into new groups -- jigsaw groups -- by assigning one member from each
home group to a new group.
If an activity begins with groups A, B, C, and D, the jigsaw groups have a
member from A, B, C, and D. In the jigsaw groups, participants share
information and complete some sort of project or product.The trainees conduct
research in groups responsible for collecting information about a given area of
that topic. Participants are to generate the questions to be asked after
experiencing an "anchor" activity that is designed to bring forth the questions the
instructor wants them to ask.
2. Assignments Involved
For reading purpose, portions of an article should be assigned to participants in
the divided group. But for presentations the participants in smaller groups
109
should select the sessions according to their interest to attend and take notes.
Then they should summarize the main points and report back to the whole group.
There should be provision of note taking sheets with questions for the
participants. In case of large groups, after reading same passage, the participants
should discuss and decide on main points to be reported by selected reporter. All
the participants should complete the assignments.
5.5 FISH BOWL METHOD
The objective of fish bowl exercise is to inculcate in the participants, the
discipline of observing others and provide constructive feedback. This method is
helpful to learn about one self, one’s behaviour and personality as seen through
the eyes of others and consequently to overcome weaknesses for improving
strengths.
5.5.1 Activities Involved
In this type of training, twenty-five participants seat in two concentric outer and
inner circles. The inner circle is the target group in which members either discuss
a pre-selected topic or move towards completion of a group task. After
the discussion by the members of inner group, which may extend up to half an
hour, the outer group is asked to comment on the content and more importantly,
the dynamics and group process of the inner groups members. The trainer should
select a topic for discussion that is either familiar to the participants or of
interest to them. Then, participants can identify with the topic or task and
generate a discussion.
5.5.1 Role of Tr ainer
In this method, the trainer shall act as a facilitator and guide the participants
towards constructive results. At the outset, he will state the ground rules for the
training and each member of the outer group must play the role. The trainer
should precede the exercise with discourse on group dynamics and human
110
behaviour, principles of learning and individual actions in groups. This will

provide the basis on which feedback is given.
6. T-GROUPS
T-groups are helpful for understanding the self and contributing towards
organizational change & development through training in attitudinal changes in
the participants and creating better teamwork. T-groups can be classified into
following three categories. A T-group may consist of eight to fifteen persons.
After setting forth the objectives, the trainer remains in the background creating a
vacuum, which impels participants to develop structure and meaning.
1. Stranger groups
In this group participants have no prior knowledge of one another. But members
can express and involve themselves without fear or retaliation. However, the
commencement of the training is difficult as all are strangers in the group.
2. Family Groups
In this group participants belong to the same department or hierarchical level and
have prior knowledge of each other. But the members may shy away from giving
feedback, may dilute it or may not disclose themselves in fear of its being used
against them.
5.7 DATA GATHERING
All reporting libraries gather data about their customers, both actively (e.g.,
focus groups) and passively. The most used data-gathering methods are surveys,
with exit surveys in fairly common use: these are typically done yearly or bi-
yearly. Electronic suggestion and comment boxes are also common because they
have the benefit of being available to customers all the time. Some use focus
groups at least annually, but for others the technique has been used sparingly and
only for very specific purposes.
5.7.1 Benefits
The potential benefits of organized customer service programs are many. A
strong philosophy of service that is understood by all staff can guide day-to-day
performance and performance evaluation systems. Training based on that
philosophy can provide an important means of improving services on a continual
basis. Gathering and using data about customer experiences--both successes and
failures--is likely to raise the quality of service and the
satisfaction of customers.
111
Although formally organized customer service programs are familiar features of

day to day lives, they are relatively recent arrivals in academic research libraries.
Several libraries have committed themselves seriously to the approach--
incorporating it pervasively into their training, performance expectation,
evaluation, and reward systems. Others are still at early stages of development,
incorporating a few characteristics and experimenting with techniques such as
focus groups.
8. GROUPING METHOD
These roles help members to function together as a group and maintain good
interpersonal relationships. The group includes supporter to praise and agree
with others. There should be harmonizer to help in resolving disagreements and
conflicts between others. The tension reliever makes people feel relaxed by
cracking jokes and generating humour. The encourager encourages those who
have not spoken to participate in the training programme.
9. BUSSINESS GAME
Business game is a training technique in which participants consider sequence of
problems and take decisions. It is simulation which consisting of sequential
decision-making exercise structured around a hypothetical model of the
operations of an organization. As it is only a simulation there is no real loss to
the organization in case participants make mistakes. Among different training
methods, business game is increasingly used in management development
programs for effectiveness of learning.
This method is helpful to reduce conflicts among the participants. These games
can be classified on the basis of coverage, competitive element & processing
results. According to coverage there may be total enterprise gain and functional
gain. There are interactive games and non-interactive games. By processing of
results there can be computer game or non-computer game.
5.9.1 Types of Business Games
112
Business games are relatively new in comparison to other methods. There are
different types of business games according to the coverage competitive element
and processing of results. On the basis of coverage, there are Total Enter prise
games and Functional Games. On the basis of competitive element there may be
Interacting Game and Non-interacting Game. According to processing of results,
there are Computer Game and Non-computer Game.
5.9.2 Benefits
These games are helpful to demonstrate some aspects of organization activities it
helps in changing the attitudes. It provides experience in the application
statistical and analytical methods. Games are quiet absorbing, provoking interest
in participants to have more effective learning. There is a higher cost of this
method if computers are required. Some games may be to simplified models of
reality to be effective for learning of actual business situation. Many games
involve only quantitative variables ignoring human elements of organization.
2. Trainer
The trainer has to be active and fully involved to produce desired results from
this method. He should have complete understanding of the game and clearly
explain it to participants. He should always be alert to handle new situations
while running the training programme. He should have complete situation under
his control.
The game must be compared with real life situations, wherever possible. So that
business game is taken as simulation of the real life situations for learning.
Business games are very helpful to emphasize the importance of long range
planning. This method can be used for effective management development
programme.
3. Procedure
The procedure followed for successful business game should include the
following steps.
113
 There should be previous briefing for the participants

 Enough time should be available for first run of the game.
 The trainer should give first feedback quickly to trainees for interest
 There should be publication of information on results achieved
 Repeated rounds of game should be sequential and logical
 The trainer should announce the final result at the end of game
QUESTIONS
1. State the importance of training programmes for an organization.
2. Find out the procedure for choosing optimum use of a suitable training
method.
3. Differentiate between on the job and off the job training methods.
4. Give an account of the broad classifications of the training methods.
5. Describe in detail the activities involved in the lecture method of training.
6. Explain in brief different on the job related training methods.
7. Identify different types of off the job training methods
8. Discuss the training methods available for the development of skills of
employees.
9. Present important types of attitude related training methods.
10. Give an overall picture in brief about different
training methods available.
114
UNIT – IV
Need for Development
This unit is concerned with the concept of Development of Human

Resources of the organization. It focuses on the following phenomena:
Need for Development
Differences between Training and Development
Management Development Programs
Evaluation of Programs
Employee Appraisal Methods
Learning Objectives:
Determine training
objectives fro a
specific program
Identify several sources outside one’s own organization where
development programs could be obtained
Compare the relative merits of developing a program in-house
versus purchasing it from an outside source
List out the activities in employer designed program
Compare various types of training materials and describe how
they are prepared
Point out some of the constraints to scheduling programs and
suggest ways of dealing with them.
Define evaluation and explain its role in Human Resource
Development
Compare different framework for HRD evaluation
Introduction:
115
Now let us discuss in detail about what is development in management

parlance, the need for development and the difference between training and
development.
There are three terms which are used in the context of learning –
education, training and development. Though these three are different and
unique from each other, many times they are interchangeably used in
place of one another. The term education is used in a broader sense involving the
development of an individual socially, mentally and physically. Therefore, at this
juncture the understanding of the nature of training and development is
important.
Training:
Training typically involves providing the employees the knowledge and

skills needed to do a particular task or a job through attitude change.
It is concerned with imparting and developing specific skills for a
particular purpose. For example, Flippo has defined training as “the act of
increasing the skills of an employee for doing a particular job”. Thus, training is
a process of learning a sequence of programmed behaviour. This
behaviour, being programmed, is relevant to a specific phenomenon, that is, a
job.
Development:
The term Development refers broadly to the nature and direction of

change induced in employees, particularly managerial personnel through the
process of training and educative process. National Industrial Conference Board
has defined development as follows:
116
Managerial Development is all those activities and programmes when

recognized and controlled, have substantial influence in changing the capacity of
the individual to perform his assignment better and in doing so are likely in
increase his potential for future assignments.
Thus managerial development is not merely training or a combination of
various training programmes, though some kind of training is necessary; it is the
overall development of the competency of managerial personnel in the
light of the present requirement as well as the future requirement. For example,
S. B. Budhiraja, former Managing Director of Indian Oil Corporation, has
viewed that:
“Any activity designed to improve the performance of existing managers
and to provide for a planned growth of managers to meet future organizational
requirements is management development”.
Development has a long term focus on preparing for future work
responsibilities, while also increasing the capacities of employees to perform
their current jobs.
Training and Development – A comparison:
Thus, training and development differ from each other in terms of their
objectives and consequently in terms of their contents. Steinmetz has
differentiated the two concepts as follows:
“Training is a short-term process utilizing a systematic and organized
procedure by which non-management personnel learn technical
knowledge and skills for a definite purpose. Development is a long-term
educational process utilizing a systematic and organized procedure by which
managerial personnel learn conceptual and theoretical knowledge for general
purpose.”
117
Four ‘W’s bring out the differences between training and development as
follows:
Training Development
WHO? Non-managerial personnel Managerial personnel
WHAT? Technical and mechanical Conceptual skills
WHY? For specific task/job For various jobs
WHEN? Shot-term Long-term
Source: Human Resource Management – L. M. Prasad
Training and development is considered as a continuum. Training-

development continuum has manual training at the one end and philosophy at the
other end. The training-development continuum contains the following stages:
 Manual Skills
 Specific job techniques
 Techniques
 Concepts
 Philosophy
The manual training is given to operatives for performing specific jobs.
As it progresses, we find more emphasis on other points of the continuum.
Managerial personnel have greater needs for conceptual and human relations
skills as compared to job-related skills. Therefore, their need for training
does not remain confined to the development of skills needed for specific jobs.
They require skills and competence for future managerial jobs besides their
present of contents rather than on account of process involved.
Need for Training and Development
There is continuous pressure for efficiency and if the organization does
not respond to this pressure, it may find itself rapidly losing its market. Training
118
imparts skills and knowledge to employees in order that they contribute to the
organization’s efficiency and be able to cope up with the pressures of changing
environment. The viability of an organization depends to a considerable extent
on the skills of different employees, especially that of managerial cadre, to relate
the organization with its environment. Therefore, in any organization, there is no
question of whether to train its employees or not, the only choice is that of
following a particular method
Bass has identified three factors which necessitate continuous training in
an organization. These factors are technological advances, organizational
complexity and human relations. All these factors are related to each other.
Training and development can play the following role in an organization.
1. Increases Efficiency. Training increases skills for doing a job in better
way. This is more important in the context of changing technology
because the old method of working may not be relevant. As such, training
is required even to maintain minimum level of output.
2. Increases Morale. Training increases morale of employees. High morale
is evidenced by employee enthusiasm. Training increases employee
morale by relating their skills with their job requirements. Possession of
skills necessary to perform a job well often tends to meet human needs
such as security and ego satisfaction. Trained employees can see the jobs
in more meaningful way.
3. Better Human Relations. Training increases the quality of human
relations in an organization. Growing complexity of organizations has
led to various human problems like inter-personal and inter-group
problems. These problems can be overcome by suitable human relation
training.
4. Reduced Supervision. Trained employees require less supervision.
Autonomy and freedom can be given if the employees are trained
119
properly to handle their jobs without the help of supervision. With

reduced supervision, a manager can increase his span of control in the
organization which saves cost to the organization.
5. Increased Organizational Viability and Flexibility. There is no greater
organizational asset than trained personnel, because these people can turn
the other assets into productive whole. Viability relates to survival
of the organization during bad days and flexibility relates to sustain its
effectiveness despite the loss of its key personnel and making short-term
adjustment with the existing personnel. Such adjustment is possible if the
organization has trained people who can occupy the positions vacated by
key personnel. The organization, which does not prepare a second line of
personnel who can ultimately take the charge of key personnel, may not
be successful in the absence of such key personnel for whatever the
reason.
MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS:
After having understood the concept of development and its need in the
organization, let us now turn our attention on Management Development
Programs.
As we begin this session, we have to verify whether the following
statements are true or false?
 The best way to learn any new skill is to learn it on the job.
 The lecture method is a very poor method to use for training purposes.
 It is relatively easy to come up with questions to stimulate useful group
discussion.
 Generally, the more “bells and whistles” that you can put in a computer
slide presentation, the better.
120
 In more cases, when trainers have trainees discuss a case study, this is
little more than time filler or a chance for the trainer to take a break from
lecturing.
 Computer-based training has become the dominant form of delivery
method across a wide variety of HRD applications.
This part of discussion, we will focus in more detail on the array of
methods available for conducting training and development programs.
Some of the most exciting developments in HRD concern the increased use of
technology in program implementation.
TRAINING DELIVERY METHODS
Clearly, training is intended to increase the expertise of trainees in a

particular area. When thinking about what training method (or methods) to use, it
is useful to consider the current level of expertise that trainees possess. As
trainees ‘ level of expertise increases, the desired or ideal training methods are
also likely to shift more toward exploratory or experiential methods. As
experiential methods generally require more time to complete than instruction-
centered approaches, they are not as commonly used to reach large number of
individuals. An effective training or HRD program should first identify where
trainees stand, and then provide assistance for all trainees to “move up” toward
an expert level of performance. In many situations, both guided and experiential
approaches will be used, for example, when organizations combine the use of
lecture, discussion, case studies, behavior modeling, role playing, and games or
simulations. Each of these methods of training delivery will be described below.
Training methods can be classified by whether they take place on the job
versus away from the employee’s normal work setting. We will first discuss on-
the-job methods, and then discuss classroom approaches. Yet a third category of
121
training methods includes those that use a self paced or individualized approach.
For example, computer training can take place on the job (e.g., when an
employee works at a computer at his or her desk) or in a computerized
classroom. However, much of the recent growth of computer training has used a
self-paced approach (e.g., CD-ROM, Web-based, or distance learning) that may
be done in a variety of different settings.
ON-THE-J OB TRAINING (OJ T) METHODS
On-the-job training (OJT) involves conducting training at a trainee’s regular

workplace (desk, machine, etc.) This is the most common form of training; most
employees receive at least some training and coaching on the job. Any type of
one-on-one instruction between coworkers or between the employee and the
supervisor can be classified as OJT. Structured OJT programs are generally
conducted by an assigned trainer who is recognized, rewarded, and trained to
provide appropriate instructional techniques. A survey of OJT practices found
that 1) supervisors, coworkers, and to a lesser degree, HRD staff members
conducted most of the situational techniques; 2) a majority of organizations
provided train-the-trainer programs for these assigned OJT programs. Formal
OJT has two distinct advantages over classroom training. First, OJT facilitates
the transfer of learning to the job because the trainee has an immediate
opportunity to practice the work tasks on the job. Transfer of learning is
enhanced because the learning environment is the same as the performance
environment. Second, OJT reduces training costs because no training facilities
are needed.
There are, however, several limitations to OJT. First, the job site may
have physical constraints, noise, and other distractions that could inhibit learning.
Many of these cannot be changed because of the nature of the job.
122
Second, using expensive equipment for training could result in costly damage or
disruption of the production schedule. Third, using OJT while customers are
present may inconvenience them and temporarily reduce the quality of service.
Fourth, OJT involving heavy equipment or chemicals may threaten the safety of
others who are working in close proximity. Precautions should be taken by the
trainer to minimize the potential problems from these four areas.
In many cases, OJT is used in conjunction with off-the-job training. A

study of best OJT practices in Great Britain found the OJT was much more likely
to be successful when it was operated in a systematic fashion, when there was
clear top management support, and when line managers were committed to it.
Further, for complex jobs, OJT was more line managers were committed to it.
Further, for complex jobs. OJT was more effective when classroom training,
OJT, and computer-based training were used in combination.
There are four OJT techniques, such as job instruction training (JIT), job
rotation, coaching, and mentoring.
J OB INSTRUCTION TRAINING (J IT)
JIT is defined as a sequence of instructional procedures used by the

trainer to train employee while they work in their assigned job. It is a form of
OJT. The content of a JIT program is distinguished by its simplicity. A simple
four-step process that helps the trainer to prepare the worker, present the task,
allow for practice time, and follow-up. Preparing the workers is important
because they need to know what to expect. Preparation may include providing
employees with a training manual, handouts, or other training or job aids that can
be used as references. Presenting the task should be carried out in such a way
that the trainee understands and can replicate the task. Some trainers
123
demonstrate the task before asking the trainee to repeat the process. Practice time
is important for the trainee to master a particular set of skills. Finally, the trainer
needs to conduct a follow-up as a way of ensuring that the trainee is making
progress. During this follow-up session, the trainer should apply coaching
techniques when appropriate. The role of the trainer in this approach is to guide
the learners and help them to discover potential problems and find solutions on
their own. The instructor can then provide feedback and reinforce learning.
The success of JIT depends on the ability of the trainer to adapt his or her
own style to the training process. The trainer, particularly if this person is the
trainee’s coworker or supervisor, should have an opportunity to assess the
trainee’s needs before beginning the training material is too difficult or too easy,
the OJT trainer should adjust the material or techniques to fit the needs of the
trainee.
J OB ROTATION
So far we have discussed techniques that are intended to develop job-

related skills. Job rotation is similar in intent, but with this approach the trainee
is generally expected to learn more by observing and doing than by receiving
instruction Rotation, as the term implies, involves a series of assignments to
different positions or departments for a specified period of time. During this
assignment, the trainee is supervised by a department employee, usually a
supervisor, who is responsible for orienting, training, and evaluation the trainee.
Throughout the training cycle, the trainee is expected to learn about how each
department functions, including some key roles, policies, and procedures. At the
end of the cycle, the accumulated evaluations will be used to determine the
preparedness of the trainee and if and where the person will be permanently
124
assigned. Job rotation is frequently used for first-level management training,

particularly for new employees. When this technique is used, it is generally
assumed that new managers need to develop a working knowledge of the
organization before they can be successful mangers.
COACHING AND MENTORING
Two other forms of on-the-job training, coaching and mentoring, also

involve one-on-one instruction. Coaching typically occurs between an employee
and that person’s supervisor and focuses on examining employee performance
and taking actions to maintain effective performance and correct performance
problems. In mentoring a senior manager is paired with a more junior employee
for the purpose of giving support, helping the employee learn the ropes, and
preparing the employee for increasing responsibility.
CLASSROM TRAINING APPROACHES
We define classroom training approaches as those conducted outside of

the normal work setting. In this sense, a classroom can be any training space
away from the work site, such as the company cafeteria or a meeting room.
While many organizations capitalize on whatever usable space they have
available to conduct training sessions, some larger organization (including
McDonald’s, Motorola, Dunkin Donuts, and Pillsbury) maintain facilities they
serve as freestanding training centers. These training centers operate as a
company college (McDonald’s refers to its center as Hamburger U.), with
curricula that include courses covering a wide range of skill and content areas.
Dell computer calls their area Dell Learning, to signify that it includes more than
simply classroom training.
125
Conducting training away from the work setting has several advantages
over on-the-job training. First, classroom settings permit the use of a variety of
training techniques, such as video, lecture, discussion, role playing, and
simulation. Second, the environment can be designed or controlled to minimize
distractions and create a climate conducive to learning. Third, classroom settings
can accommodate large numbers of trainees than the typical on-the-job setting,
allowing for more efficient delivery of training. On the other hand, two potential
disadvantages of classroom methods, as a group, include increased costs (such as
travel and the rental or purchase and maintenance of rooms and equipment) and
dissimilarity to the job setting, making transfer of training more difficult.
Five primary categories of classroom training include.
1. Lecture
2. Discussion
3. Audiovisual media
4. Experiential
methods
5.
Self-paced or
computer-based
THE LECTURE APPROACH
training
The lecture method involves the oral presentation of information by a
subject-matter expert to group of listeners One of the reasons the lecture method
is so popular is that it is an efficient way of transmitting factual information to a
large audience in a relatively short amount of time. When used in conjunction
with visual aids, such as slides, charts, maps, and handouts, the lecture can be an
effective way to facilitate the transfer of theories, concepts, procedures, and other
factual material.
126
However, the lecture method has been widely criticized, particularly

because it emphasizes one-way communication. Lecture method perpetuates the
traditional authority structure of organization, thus promoting negative behavior
(such as passivity and boredom) and is poorly suited for facilitating transfer of
training and individualizing training. Similarly, the lecture has little value in
facilitating attitudinal and behavioral charges. Trainees must be motivated to
learn because when it is used alone, the lecture method does not allow for
eliciting audience responses. The lecture method lacks sharing of ideas among
the trainees, without dialogue, the trainees may not be able to put things into a
common perspective that makes sense to them.
The research is needed to identify the conditions under which the lecture
method is effective as well as ways to improve its effectiveness. First, it is safe to
say that interesting lectures promote greater learning than dull lectures do.
Therefore, trainers should make every effort to make their lectures as interesting
as possible. Some experienced trainers have argued that younger workers (i.e,
those under thirty) are especially likely to tune out lectures that they perceive to
be uninteresting or irrelevant. Second, there are likely to be advantages to
supplementing the lecture with other methods (including discussion, video, and
role playing), particularly when abstract or procedural material is to be
presented. These combinations can increase two-way communication and
facilitate greater interaction with the material.
THE DISCUSSION METHOD
The discussion method involves the trainer in two-way communication

with the trainees, and the trainees in communication with each other. It offers
trainees an opportunity for feedback, clarification, and sharing points of view.
This technique can overcome some of the limitations of the straight lecture
127
method. The success of this method is dependent upon the ability of the trainer
to initiate and manage class discussion by asking one or more of the following
types of questions.
 Direct questions can be used to illustrate or produce a very narrow

response.
 Reflective questions can be used to mirror what someone else has said to
make sure the message was received as intended.
 Open-ended questions can be used to challenge the trainees to increase

their understanding of specific topic.
The discussion method has several limitations. First, a skilled facilitator

is needed to manage the discussion process. Second, sufficient time must be
available for meaningful discussion to take place. Third, trainees need to have a
common reference point for meaningful discussion to occur. Assigning reading
material before the discussion session can help overcome this obstacle.
AUDIOVISUAL MEDIA
Both the lecture and discussion method are limited in their ability to
adequately portray dynamic and complex events. Audiovisual methods take
advantage of various media to illustrate or demonstrate the training material.
Audiovisual media can bring complex events to life by showing and describing
details that are often difficult to communication in other ways. Audiovisual
methods can be classified into three groups: static media, dynamic media, and
telecommunications.
STATIC MEDIA. Static media typically involve fixed illustrations that

use both words and images, for example, printed materials, slides, and overhead
128
transparencies. Printed materials, such as handouts, charts, guides, reference

books, and textbooks, allow trainees to keep the material, referring to it before,
during, and after the training session. Sliders are often used in ways similar to
printed materials, but by projecting computer-or camera-generated images onto a
screen, they can serve as a common focus for discussion. Overhead
transparencies also allow the trainer to project printed materials or other images
on a screen.
DYNAMIC MEDIA. Techniques that present dynamic sequences of events are

considered dynamic media and include audiocassettes and compact discs (CDs).
Film, videotape, and videodisc. There are literally thousands of commercially
produced films and videos available to HRD professionals through film libraries,
professional societies, and retail outlets. Many training vendors emphasize the
sale or rental of training videos. In addition, many organizations are able to
produce their own videos at relatively low cost. One limitation of this technique
is that trainers may rely too much on the film or video, and focus too little on the
training content. Such reliance can lead to complacency among trainees who
view the films and videos as entertainment, rather then as opportunities to learn.
TELECOMMUNICATION. The transmission of training programs to

different locations via telecommunication is now possible with the advent of
satellite, microwave, cable (CATV), and fiber-optic networks. Linking several
locations for instructional and conference purposes, known as instructional
television (ITV), OR interactive television, allows entire courses to be televised.
For example, colleges and universities are increasingly offering both bachelor’s
master’s degrees” delivered entirely by cable television and satellite.” Given the
choices available, HRD professionals must select the most appropriate
129
audiovisual method for each particular HRD program. Kearsley made five
primary recommendation concerning media selection:
1. Identify the media attributes required by the conditions, performance, or

standards of each instructional objective.
2. Identify student characteristics that suggest or preclude particular media.
3. Identify characteristics of the learning environment
4. Identify practical considerations that may determine which media are

feasible.
5. Identify economic or organizational factors that may determine which

media are feasible.
EXPERIENTIAL METHODS
So far, we have discussed training methods that focus primarily on

presentation of training content. In many of these methods, such as video and
lecture, the learner
Experiential learning advocates, such as David Kolb, argue that effective
learning requires active engagement on the part of the learner. Keys and
Wolfe summarize this point of view as follows:
Experientialists believe that effective learning is an active experience that

challenges the skills, knowledge, and beliefs of participants. This is
accomplished by creating a contrived, yet realistic, environment that is both
challenging and psychologically safe for the participants investigate and to
employ new concepts, skills, and behaviors. Experiential training methods
130
commonly used in organizations include case studies, games and simulations,

role playing, and behavior modeling. Each of these methods is described below.
CASE STUDIES: One way to help trainees learn analytical and problem-
solving skills is by presenting story (called a case) about people in an
organization who are facing a problem or decision. Cases may be faced on actual
events involving real people in an organization, or they can be fictional. Case
studies are included in college text books and courses in management, public
administration, law, sociology, and similar subjects. They are increasingly
available using video and other media.
While cases vary in complexity and detail, trainees should be given

enough information to analyze the situation and recommend their own solutions.
In solving the problem, the trainees are generally required to use a rational
problem-solving process that includes the following steps:
1. Restating important facts

2. Drawing inferences from the facts
3. stating the problem or problems
4. developing alternative solutions and then stating consequences of each
5. determining and supporting a course of action
Proponents of the case study method argue that this form of problem
solving within a management setting offers illustrations of the concepts students
are respected to learn and use, improves communications skills, and facilities the
linking between theory and practice. Proponents also claim that cases allow
students discuss, share, and debate the merits of different inferences, problems,
and alternative courses of action. Such insight can help students to develop better
analytical skills and improve their ability to integrate new information.
131
The case study method also has vigorous critics who argue that it can
cause groupthink, focuses too much on the past, limits the teaching role of the
trainer, reduces the learner’s ability to draw generalizations, reinforces passively
on the part of the learner, and promotes the quantity of interaction among
students at the expense of the quality of interaction. Andrews and Noel claim
that cases often lack realistic complexity and a sense of immediacy, and inhabit
development of the ability to collect and distill information. In addition, trainees
may get caught up in the details of the situation, at the expense of focusing on
the larger issues and concepts they are trying to learn.
To overcome these limitations, the trainer should make expectations clear

and provide guidance when needed. In addition, the trainer must effectively
guide the discussion portion of the case study to ensure trainees have an
opportunity to explore differing assumptions and positions they have taken and
the rationale for what constitutes effective responses to the case. The point in
discussing cases is not to find the “right” solution, but to be able to provide a
reasoned and logical rationale for developing a course of action. Variations in the
case method have also been proposed. One such variation, called a living case,
has trainees analyze a problem they and their organization are currently facing.
BUSINESS GAMES AND SIMULATIONS. Business games are
intended to develop or refine problem-solving and decision-making skills. This
technique tends to focus primarily management decisions (such as maximizing
profits).
Business games, particularly computer simulations of organizations and

industries, and widely used in business schools. A review of sixty-one studies
reported support for the effectiveness of business games in strategic
132
management courses. Whether these results can be generalized to organizational

setting is still an open question.
The object of this technique is to force the trainees to make decisions in

the allotted time period. Since there is usually insufficient time to read each
document and respond, the trainees must make quick and accurate decisions. The
trainees are evaluated not only on the quality of their decision but also on their
ability to prioritize and to deal effectively with all of the critical documents.
Research on the in-basket technique has shown it to be successful both in
improving trainee effectiveness and in predicting managerial effectiveness,
either alone or in combination with other devices.
One limitation of business games and simulations is that while they can
be quite complex, these techniques often lack the realistic complexity and
information present in real organizations. Factors such as organizational history
and politics, social pressures, the risks and consequences of alternatives, and the
organization’s culture are difficult to replicate in a simulation. This may
undermine the extent to which what is learned in the game or simulation will
transfer back to the job.
In addition, many games and simulations emphasize the use of

quantitative analysis in making business decisions and underplay the importance
of interpersonal issues in managerial effectiveness. It has also been argued that
the popularity of simulation techniques is based more on circumstantial evidence
than on rigorous evaluative research, but because simulations are used in
conjunction with other techniques, isolating their effect in research has been
difficult.
133
ROLE PLAYS. In the role-playing technique, trainees are presented with an

organizational situation, assigned a role or character in the situation, and asked to
act out the role with one or more other trainees. The role play should offer
trainees an opportunity for self-discovery and learning. For example, a
management development program could include a role-play situation
emphasizing interpersonal conflict between a manager and a subordinate.
Management trainees would have an opportunity to role play both the manager
and the subordinate role, in order to better understand some of the dynamics of
this situation, as well as practice interpersonal skills. The value of this technique
is enhanced by conducting a feedback session following the role play, in which
trainees and the trainer critique the role player’s performance.
While self-discovery and opportunity to practice interpersonal skills are

outcomes of role playing, this method does have some limitations. First, as
discussed earlier, some trainees may feel intimidated by having to act out a
character (and possible be videotaped doing so). A second limitation of the
technique is the extent to which the trainees are able to transfer this learning to
their job. Some trainees may perceive this role playing as artificial or as fun and
games, but not as a legitimate learning tool. Trainees who do not take this
technique seriously may interfere with other trainees’ learning the trainer must
manage the process effectively and keep reinforcing the importance participation.
BEHAVIOR MODELING: Social learning theory (see Chapter 2)

suggests that many of our behavior patterns are learned from observing others.
This theory forms the basis for behavioral modeling. In organizations, employees
learn all kinds of behaviors (some work related and some not), from observing
supervisors, managers, union leaders, and coworkers who serve as role models.
134
Under normal conditions, role models can have a tremendous influence on

individual behavior.
In this technique, trainees observe a model performing a target behavior

correctly (usually on film or video). This is followed by a discussion of the key
components of the behavior, practicing the target behavior through role playing,
and receiving feedback and reinforcement for the behavior they demonstrate.
Behavior modeling is widely used for interpersonal skill training and is a
common component of many management training programs.
Research has shown behavior modeling to be an effective training

technique and will be described in greater detail in our discussion of
management development.
SELF-PACED/COMPUTER-BASED TRAINING MEDIA AND

METHODS
Computers have had an enormous impact on the delivery of training in

organizations. It is estimated that majority of organizations use computer-based
training (CBT) via CD-ROM in their training programs, with other multimedia-
based efforts certainly pushing the number of computer-based training
approaches much higher than this. One of the biggest influences of the growth of
CBT is the advent of microcomputers and the rapid increase in their capabilities.
In the early days of CBT, one had to have access to terminals connected to a
mainframe computer and software that was time-sharing with other business
computing needs. PCs are now present in virtually all organizations, and
important advances in hardware and software are occurring at a dizzying pace.
The primary advantage CBT has over other methods of training is its
interactivity. The interaction between the learner and the computer in many CBT
135
programs mirrors the one-on-one relationship between student and tutor:

questions and responses can go back and forth, resulting in immediate feedback.
COMPUTER-AIDED INSTRUCTION (CAI). CAI programs can range from

electronic workbooks, using the drill-and-practice approach, to compact disc
read-only memory (CD-ROM) presentation of a traditional training program.
CAI software packages are available at relatively low cost for a wide range of
materials, from teachings basic skills such as reading and typing, to highly
technical scientific, engineering, and machine maintenance topics. CAI programs
are available not only as part of business software programs (like the tutorial
programs that come with such word-processing packages as Microsoft Word) but
also through retail outlets, and some have become software best- sellers. Some
organizations custom design software from scratch or modify existing programs
to meet their unique needs. Multimedia programs offer an improvement over the
more traditional CAI programs because they provide more appealing visual and
audio content.
The effectiveness of CAI can be measured by changes in productivity

and profits. Reinhard reported that a four hour CAI program, which trained sales
representatives on selling a piece of computer software, resulted in additional
revenues of $4.6 million for Xerox. Another measure of effectiveness is a cost-
benefit analysis that compares CAI to other techniques. A financial institution in
New York, which was paying trainees while they waited for available classroom
training programs, switched to CAI and realized enough savings to offset the
development cost of the CAI program.
Some critics worry about the loss of personal interaction between a

human trainer and the learner, and suggest that reliance on CBT may restrain the
development of interpersonal skills.
136
INTERNET- AND INTRANET-BASED TRAINING. The Internet is one

of the fastest growing technological phenomena the world has ever seen. Today,
tens of millions of computers are connected to one another via modems,
telephone and cable lines, supper conduction (ISDN) transmission lines, and the
Internet.
Intranet-based training (IBT) uses internal computer networks for training

purposes. Through IBT, HRD professionals are able to communicate with
learners, conduct needs assessment and other administrative tasks, transmit
course materials and other training documents, and administer tests at any time
and throughout the organization, whether an employee is in the United States or
located overseas. IBT is powerful delivery system for large international
organizations.
INTELLIGENT COMPUTER-ASSISTED INSTRUCTION.

ICAI goes
beyond CAI in terms of flexibility and the ability to qualitatively evaluate
learner performance. Whereas a typical CAI program may allow the learner to
select from among several levels of presentation (novice, intermediate,
etc.), an ICAI program is able to discern the learner’s capability from the
learner’s response patterns and by analyzing the learner’s errors. The goal of
ICAI systems is to provide learners with an electronic teacher’s assistant that can
patiently offer advice to individual learners, encourage learner practice, and
stimulate learners’ curiosity through experimentation. This would potentially
make the teacher more available for more creative endeavors, or for helping
learners to overcome subtle or difficult problems beyond the capability of ICAI.
EVALUATION OF DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS:
This topic leads to the following questions:
137
 How do you actually evaluate training and HRD programs?
 What measures can be used to evaluate training programs?
 Is there one best model or framework to use to evaluate training?
 What important issues should be considered as one prepares to evaluate

HRD programs?
 What are the ethical issues involved in evaluation HRD programs?
 To what extent can the value of HRD programs be expressed in terms of

costs and benefits, or dollars and cents?
Now, we will discuss how to answer the question upon which HRD evaluation is
based:
This chapter concentrates on definition of HRD evaluation, its purposes,

the options available for conducting and evaluation of HRD programs and
discuss how evaluation findings can be communicated.
THE PURPOSE OF HRD EVALUATION
HRD evaluation is defined as “the systematic collection of descriptive

and judgmental information necessary to make effective training decisions
related to the selection, adoption, value, and modification of various instructional
activities.”
This definition highlights some important points. First, when conducting

an evaluation, both descriptive and judgmental information may be collected.
Second, evaluation also involves the systematic collection of information
according to a predetermined plan or method to ensure that the information is
138
appropriate and useful. Finally, evaluation is conducted to help managers,

employees and HRD professionals make informed decisions about particular
programs and methods. Evaluation can serve a number of purpose within the
organization. According to Phillips, evaluation can help to do the following:
Determine whether a program is accomplishing its objectives
Identify the strengths and weaknesses of HRD programs, which can need to
changes, as needed.
Determine the cost-benefit ratio of an HRD program
Decide who should participate benefited the most or least from the program
Reinforce major points to be made to the participants
Gather data to assist in marketing future programs
Determine if the program was appropriate
Establish a database to assist management in

making decisions
Better and more informed decision making, then, is an important benefit of

conducting an HRD evaluation. But there are other benefits as well Zenger and
Hargis identified three additional reasons for conducting HRD evaluation:
1. If HRD staff cannot substantiate its contribution to the organization, its

funding and program may be cut during the budgeting process, especially
when the organization faces tough times.
2. Evaluation can build credibility with top managers and others in the
organization.
139
3. Senior management often wants to know the benefits of HRD program.
Thus, evaluation is a critical step in the HRD process. It is the only way one can
know whether an HRD program has fulfilled its objectives.
MODELS AND FRAMEWORKS OF EVALUATION
A model of evaluation outlines the criteria for and focus of the evaluation effort.
Because an HRD program can be examined from a number of perspectives, it is
important to specify which perspectives will be considered. While the different
models and frameworks share some features, they also differ in significant ways.
Let us discuss some of the important models of evaluation.
KIRKPATRICK’S EVALUATION FRAMEWORK
The most popular and influential framework for training evaluation was
articulated by Kirkpatrick. Kirkpatrick argues that training efforts can be
evaluated according to four criteria: reaction, learning, job behavior, and results.
1. Reaction (Level 1) Did the trainees like the program and feel it was useful?
At this level, the focus is on the trainees’ perceptions about the program
and its effectiveness. This is useful information. Positive reactions to a
training program may make it easier to encourage employees to attend
future programs. But if trainees did not like the program or think they
didn’t learn anything (even if they did), they may discourage others form
attending and may be reluctant to use the skills or knowledge obtained in
the program. The main limitation of evaluating HRD programs at the
reaction level is that this information cannot indicate whether the
program met its objective beyond ensuring participant satisfaction.
140
2. Learning (Level 2) Did the trainees learn what the HRD objectives said
they should learn? This is an important criterion, one many in the
organization would expect an effective HRD program to satisfy.
Measuring whether someone has learned something in training may
involve a quiz or test – clearly a different method from assessing the
participant’s reaction to the program.
3. Job Behavior (Level 3) Does the trainee use what was learned in training
back on the job? (Recall our discussion of transfer of training in Chapter
3) this is also a critical measure of training success. We all know
coworkers who have learned how to do something but choose not to. If
learning does not transfer to the job, the training effort cannot have an
impact on the employee’s or organization’s effectiveness. Measuring
whether training has transferred to the job requires observation of the
trainee’s on-the-job behaviour or viewing organizational records (e.g.,
reduced customer complaints, a reduction in scrap rate).
4. Results (Level 4) Has the training or HRD effort improved the

organization’s effectiveness? Is the organization more efficient, more
profitable, or base to serve its clients or customers as a result of the
training program? Meeting this criterion is considered to be the most
challenging level to assess, given that many things beyond employee
performance can affect organizational performance. Typically at this
level, economic and operating data (such as sales or waste) are collected
and analyzed.
Kirkpatick’s framework provides a useful way of looking at the possible

consequences of training and reminds us that HRD efforts often have multiple
objectives. It has sometimes been assumed that each succeeding level
141
incorporates the one prior to it, finally culminating in what many people consider
to be the ultimate contribution of any organizational activity: improving the
organization’s effectiveness. However, one of the more enduring (and in our
view, depressing) findings about HRD evaluation is the extent to which most
organizations do not collect information on all four types of evaluation
outcomes. For instance, in the 2000 State of the Industry Report (ASTD), a
survey of over 500 organizations reported the following: 77 percent collected
reaction measures, 36 percent collected learning measures, 15 percent collected
behavior measures, and 8 percent collected results measures. 15 percent collected
behaviour measures, and 8 percent collected results measures. Perhaps even more
surprising, even the subgroup of organizations that ASTD highlighted as
“training investment leaders” reported only slightly higher usage of these
measures (80 percent, 43 percent, 16 percent, and 9 percent). It does raise an
important question as to why these usage rates are so low, particularly for
behavioural and results measures, as these would seem to provide organizations
with vital, even invaluable information.
While most discussions about training and HRD evaluation are organized
around Kirkpatrick’s four levels of criteria, Kirkpatrick’s approach has
increasingly been the target of criticism and modification. First, some authors
point out that the framework evaluates only what happens after training, as
opposed to the entire training process. A second line of criticism is that what
Kirkpatrick proposed would be better described as a taxonomy of outcomes,
rather that a true model of training outcomes.
OTHER FRAMEWORK AND MODELS OF EVALUATION
Training researchers have attempted to expand Kirkpatrick’s ideas to

develop a model that provides a more complete picture of evaluation and
encourages
142
practitioners to do a more thorough job of evaluation. Several authors have

suggested modifications to Kirkpatrick’s four-level approach that keep the
framework essentially intact. These include.
 Expanding the reaction level to include assessing the participants’

reaction to the training methods and efficiency
 Splitting the reaction level to include assessing participants’ perceptions

of enjoyment, usefulness (utility), and the difficulty of the program
 Adding a fifth level (beyond results) to address the societal contribution

and outcomes created by an HRD program
 Adding a fifth level (beyond results) to specifically address the

organization’s return on investment.
Galvin, building upon studies in the education field, suggested the CIPP
(Context, Input, Process, Product) model. In this model, evaluation
focuses on measuring the context for training (needs analysis), inputs to
training (examining the resources available for training, such as budgets
and schedules), the process of conducting the training program (for
feedback to the implementers), and the product, or outcome, of training
(success in meeting program objectives). Galvin also reported survey
results indicating that ASTD members preferred the CIPP model of
evaluation to Kirkpatrick’s framework.
Similarly, the CIRO (Context, Input, Reaction, Outcome) model was

offered by Warr el al, The context, input, and outcome evaluations in this model
are essentially the same as the context, input, and product evaluations in CIPP,
143
but CIRO emphasizes trainee reaction as a source of information to improve the

training program.
Brinkerhoff extends the training evaluation model to six stages:
1. Goal Setting: What is the need?

2. Program Design: what will work to meet the need?
3. Program Implementation: Is it working, with the focus on the
implementation of the program?
4. Immediate Outcomes: Did participants learn?
5. Intermediate or Usage Outcomes: Are the participants using what they
learned?
6. Impacts and Worth: Did it make a worthwhile difference to the
organization?
Brinkerhoff’s model suggests a cycle of overlapping steps, with problems
identified in one step possible caused by things occurring in previous steps.
Bushnell suggests a model also based on a systems view of the HRD
function (i.e., input – throughput – output), containing four stages:
1. Input: What goes into the training effort? This consists of performance
indications such as trainee qualification and trainer ability.
2. Process: The planning, design, development, and implementation of the
HRD program.
3. Output: Trainee reactions, knowledge or skills gained, and improved job
behavior.
4. Outcome: Effects on the organization, including profits, productivity, and
customer satisfaction.
Bushnell states that evaluation measurement can and should occur between each
of the stages as well as between the four activities in the process stage to ensure
that the program is will designed and meets its objectives.
144
As you might have noticed all of the evaluation frameworks

incorporate Kirkpatrick’s four levels of evaluation in one way or another, either
as explicit steps in the model or as information collected within the steps.
In its simplest form, evaluation should address the question of whether

the training program achieved its objectives. Basing training objectives on needs
assessment information, and then evaluating those objectives, is the most
parsimonious way of summarizing what training evaluation efforts can focus on
some combination of the following points (depending upon the situation). While
this is only a modest expansion of Kirkpatrick, it highlights some aspects not
fully captured by the “four levels”.
STEPS IN THE PROCES OF EVALUATION:
1. DATA COLLECTION FOR HRD EVALUATION
By definition, any evaluation effort requires the collection of data to

provide decision makers with facts and judgments upon which they can base
their decisions. Three important aspects of providing information for HRD
evaluation include data collection methods, types of data, and the use of self-
report data.
RESEARCH DESIGN
A research is a plan for conducting an evaluation study. Research design

is a complex topic. Research design is critical to HRD evaluation. It specifies the
expected results of the evaluation study, the methods of data collection, and how
the data will be analyzed. Awareness of research design issues and possible
research design alternatives can help managers and HRD professionals do a
145
better job of conducting evaluations and critiquing the results of evaluation

studies.
When evaluating any training or HRD effort, the researcher or HRD

professional would like to have a high level of confidence that any changes
observed after the program or intervention were due to that intervention, and not
to some other factor (such as changes in the economy, the organization, or the
reward structure in place).
ETHICAL ISSUES CONCERNING EVALUATION
Many of the decisions supervisors and HRD professionals make when

conducting HRD evaluations have ethical dimensions. While resolving the
paradoxes inherent in ethical dilemmas is no easy task, it is important that these
issues be addressed. Actions such as assigning participants to training and control
groups, reporting results, and the actual conduct of the evaluation study itself all
raise ethical questions. Schmitt and Klimoski have identified four ethical issue of
confidentiality.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Some evaluation research project involves asking participants questions

about their own or other job performance. The results of these inquiries may be
embarrassing or lead to adverse treatment by others if they are made public. For
example, if evaluation of a management development seminar involves asking
participants their opinion of their supervisors, supervisor may become angry
with participants who report that they don’t think the supervisors are doing a
good job. Similarly, employees who perform poorly or make mistakes on
important outcome measures (like written tests or role-playing exercises) may be
ridiculed by other employees.
146
Wherever possible, steps should be taken to ensure the confidentiality of

information collected during an evaluation study. Using code number rather than
names, collecting only necessary demographic information, reporting group
rather than individual results, using encrypted computer files, and securing
research materials are all ways to maintain confidentiality. As a result of such
efforts, employees may be more willing to participate in the evaluation project.
INFORMED CONSENT
In many research settings, such as hospitals and academic institutions,

evaluation studies are monitored by a review board to ensure that participants are
a ware that they are participating in a study and know its purpose, what they
will be expected to do, and the potential risks and benefits of participating. In
addition, participants are asked to sign a form stating that they have been
informed of these facts and agree to participate in the study. This is called
obtaining the participants’ informed consent.
WITHHOLDING TRAINING
Research design involving control groups require that some employees

receive training while other do not. This apparent partiality can be problematic if
the training is believed to improve some employees’ performance which could
lead to organizational benefits like a raise or a promotion, or if the training could
increase some employees well being, well-being, as in health-related programs.
If the training is expected to be effective, is it fair to train some employees and
not others just for purposes of evaluation?
There are at least three possible resolutions to this dilemma. First, an

unbiased procedure, such as a lottery, can be used to assign employees to training
groups. Second, employees who are assigned to a control group can be
147
assured that if the training is found to be effective, they will have the option of
receiving the training at a later time. Third, the research can be modified so that
both groups are trained, but at different times. One possible design is illustrated
below.
Group 1: Measure Training Measure Measure

Group 1: Measure Measure Training Measure
In point of fact, when a large number of people are going to be trained in
small groups over a period of time, this type of design is quite feasible. Whatever
approach is used, dealing with the issue of withholding training is often a matter
of practicality, in addition to an ethical matter. It is possible, for example, that
employees assigned to a control group may refuse to participate in the study or
be less motivated to complete the outcome measures.
USE OF DECEPTION
In some cases, an investigator may feel that the study will yield better
results if employees don’t realize they are in an evaluation study, or if they are
given some false or misleading information during the study. This is most
often the case when the training is conducted as part of a formal research
experiment, and less likely with more typical organizational evaluation
practices. Nonetheless, we believe this practice is generally unethical and
should be used
only as a last resort. Employees who are deceived will probably become
angry with the management, damaging a trust that is difficult to reestablish. Any
benefits of the HRD program are likely to be undermined by the effects on
employees who feel that they have been betrayed.
Alternatives to deception should be considered. If deception is used, it

should be as minimal as possible, and employees in the study should be informed
of the deception and the reasons for it as soon as the participation in the study
ends.
148
PRESSURE TO PRODUCE POSITIVE RESULTS
HRD professionals and their managers may feel pressure to make certain that the
results of their evaluation demonstrate that the program was effective. This may
be one reason why rigorous evaluation of HRD programs is not done more often.
The HRD people are the ones who design and develop (or purchase), deliver, and
evaluate the program. If the evaluation shows the program was not effective the
HRD department may lose funding and support and have their activities
curtailed.
Although the possibility exists for “fraud” in the form of doctoring

results, reporting partial results, or setting up biased studies, it is unclear how
often this occurs in HRD evaluation. Given that reports of evaluation fraud in
other areas of organizational life are fairly common, one cannot help but have
some concerns about the state of affairs in HRD evaluation.
Professional standards and ethical conduct call for those conducing HRD
evaluations to report complete results. That having been said, it is no doubt
difficult for many people to face the potential consequences of bad results. This
leads to our last major topic in this chapter, namely, how to demonstrate that a
trainings intervention has had a positive impact on important organizational
measures.
EMPLOYEE APPRAISAL METHODS:
Performance appraisal is the key ingredient of performance management.
In a work group, members, consciously or unconsciously, make opinion about
others. The opinion may be about their quality, behaviour, way of working etc.
Such an opinion becomes basis for interpersonal interaction. In the same
way, superiors from some opinions about their subordinates for determining
many
149
things like salary increase, promotion, transfer, etc. in large organizations, this
process is formalized and takes the form of performance appraisal.
CONCEPT OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL
Appraisal is the evaluation of worth, quality or merit. In the organization
context, performance appraisal is a systematic evaluation of personnel by
superiors or others familiar with their performance. Performance appraisal is
also described as merit rating in which one individual is ranked as better
or worse in comparison to others. The basic purpose in this merit rating is to
ascertain an employee’s eligibility for promotion. However, performance
appraisal is more comprehensive term for such activities because its use extends
beyond ascertaining eligibility for promotion. Such activities may be
training and development, salary increase, transfer, discharge, etc. besides
promotion. Beach has defined perfor mance appraisal as follows:
“Performance appraisal is the systematic evaluation of the individual with
regard to his or her performance on the job and his potential for development”
Thus, performance appraisal is a systematic and objective way of judging
the relative worth or ability of an employee in performing his job. It emphasizes
on two aspects: systematic and objective. The appraisal is systematic when it
evaluates all performances in the same manner, utilizing the same approaches so
that appraisal of different persons is comparable. Such an appraisal is
taken periodically according to the plan: it is not left to chance. Thus, both raters
and ratees know the system of performance appraisal and its timing. Appraisal
has objectivity also. Its essential feature is that it attempts at accurate
measurement
by trying to eliminate human biases and prejudices.
Objectives of Per for mance Appraisal:
Performance appraisal is undertaken for a variety of reasons as stated
below:
1. Salary increase
2. Promotion
150
3. Training and development

4. Feedback
5. Pressure on employees
6. Salary increase: Generally salary increase of employee depends on how
he is performing his job. There is continuous evaluation of his
performance either formally or informally. The formal performance
analysis discloses how well an employee is performing and how much he
should be compensated by way of salary increase.
2. Promotion: Often organizations use a combination strategy of merit and
seniority for promotion. Performance appraisal discloses how an
employee is working in his present job and strengths and weaknesses. In
the light of these, one can decide whether he can be promoted or not.
Similarly, it can be used for transfer and termination of an employee.
3. Training and Development: As performance appraisal identifies the
strengths and weaknesses of an employee, training and development
program can be devised to overcome this.
4. Feedback: Performance appraisal tells an employee where he stands. It
helps him to work better and contribute his efforts for the achievements
of the organizational objectives. It provides him satisfaction that his
work is meaningful and creates a proper organizational climate.
5. Control Mechanism: It puts a pressure on employee for better
performance. If an employee is conscious that he is being appraised, he
tends to have positive behaviour and automatically acts as a control
device.
Methods of Perfor mance Appraisal:
There are various methods of performance appraisal. In fact, each
organization may have its own unique system and method of appraisal. Usually
performance appraisal has two bases: i) appraisal of employees,
according to
151
traits, attributes and general behavior on the job, commonly known as trait
approach; (ii) appraisal of results, work and goals achieved by the employees,
known as appraisal by results. These two approaches are not mutually exclusive
and can be used in combination. For easy understanding various methods of
employee appraisal are classified as follows:
I Traditional Methods
1. Ranking method
2. Paired comparison
3. Grading
4. Critical incidents method
5. Graphic scale method
6. Essay method
7. Field review method
II Modern Methods
8. Appraisal by results or objectives
9. Behaviroually anchored rating scales
10. Assessment centres
11. 360-degree appraisal
Ranking Method
Ranking is the oldest and simplest method of appraisal in which a person
is ranked against others on the basis of certain traits and characteristics. This is
just like preparing ranks of various examinees in an examination. In the ranking
method, various persons are given ranks on the basis of their traits. This is very
simple method when the number of persons to be ranked is small because
ranking has to be given on the basis of traits which are not easily determinable,
not like marks in an examination.
Paired Comparison
152
Paired comparison method is a slight variation of ranking system

designed to increase its value for use in the large groups. In this method, each
person is compared with other persons taking only one at a time. Usually only
one trait, overall suitability to perform the job is considered. The rater is
provided with a bunch of slips each containing a pair of names. The rater puts a
tick mark against the person whom he considers the better of the two, and final
ranking is determined by the number of times that person is judged better than
others.
Grading
In this method, certain categories of abilities of performance are defined
well in advance and persons are put in particular category depending on
their traits and characteristics. Such categories may be definitional like
outstanding, good, average, poor, very poor, or may be in terms of letters like A,
B, C, D etc. with A indicating the best and D indicating the worst. The actual
performance of the employees is measured against these grades.
Critical Incidents Method
In this method, only critical incidents and behaviour associated with
these incidents are taken for evaluation. This method involves three steps. A test
of noteworthy on the job-behaviour (good or bad) is prepared. A group of
experts then assigns scale values to them depending on the degree of
desirability for the job. Finally, a checklist of incidents which define good and
bad employees is prepared. The rater is given this checklist for rating. The basic
idea behind this rating is to apprise the people who can do well in critical
situations
because in normal situation, most employees work alike. This method is
very useful for discovering potential of employees who can be useful in critical
situation. Such a situation may be quite important for the job.
Graphic scale method
153
Graphic scale, also known as linear rating scale, is the most commonly
used method of performance appraisal. In this method, a printed appraisal form
is used for each appraisee. The form contains various employee characteristics
and his job performance. Various characteristics include initiative, leadership,
dependability, cooperativeness, enthusiasm, creative ability, analytical ability
decisiveness, emotional maturity, etc. depending on the level of the employee.
Essay Method
Instead of using structured forms for performance appraisal, some
companies use free essay method, or sometimes, combines this with other
methods. In essay method, the rater assesses the employees on certain
parameters in his own words.
Field review method
In the field review method, an employee is not appraised by his direct
superior but by another person, usually, from HR department. The basic idea is
that such a person may take more objective view in appraisal as he is not under
pressure as the superior of the employee may be. The rater, in this case,
appraises the employee based on his records of output and other quantitative
information such as absenteeism, late coming, etc. the rater also conducts
interviews of the employee and his superior to ascertain qualitative aspects of
job performance. This method is more suitable for promotion purpose.
II MODERN METHODS:
Appraisal by Results or Objectives
One of the most promising tools of appraisal of employees, particularly
at managerial level, is the system of evaluation of managerial
performance against the setting and accomplishing of verifiable objectives. The
basic idea is that the organization is concerned with the achievement of
objectives through the contributions of individuals rather than on the basis of
their traits. It draws its roots from management by objectives.
154
Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales (BARS)

The dissatisfaction with traditional judgmental techniques used for
performance appraisal has led an increasing number of organizations to
move towards behaviorally based techniques around 1960s. At the initial stage,
some behaviorally oriented techniques like Behavioral Expectancy Scales (BES)
were developed which were replaced by the more refined scales known as
behaviorally anchored rating scales (BARS). Bars approach gets away from
measuring subjective personal traits and instead measures observable, critical
behaviors that are related to specific job dimensions. Various steps involved in
developing BARS are as follows:
1. Identification of Performance Measures: The outcome of the effective
job performance is identified by knowledgeable people, viz., superiors,
jobholders and HR personnel or combination of them. They identify the
important dimensions of the job.
2. Identification of Critical Behaviours: The behaviour which is essential
for the effective performance of job is a critical behaviour. They are
generated from different dimensions of the job and related to various
critical incidents of the job.
3. Retranslation of Critical Behaviours: Critical behaviours identified are
retranslated by a different group of personnel. In this process, critical
behaviours are classified into clusters and those approved by majority are
kept for further development and others discarded. The idea is to keep the
behaviours into a manageable limit. It ensures reliability.
4. Scaling of Critical Behaviours: The critical behaviours as identified
above are given scales in numbers with their description. It may range
from 1 to 9 demonstrating the perceived level of performance. The value
of scale is determined on the basis of estimates provided during the
retranslation process.
155
5. Development of the BARS Instrument: The result of arranging scales for

different dimensions of the job (Known as behaviour anchors) produces a
vertical scale for each dimension. It is used for performance appraisal.
Assessment Centres
The concept of assessment centres was initially applied to military
situations in the German army in 1930’s and the War office selection Board of
the British army in 1960’s. From the army, this concept traveled to
business filed during 1960’s. an assessment centre is a central location where
managers come together and participate in a number of simulated exercises, on
the basis of which they are evaluated by panel or raters. The evaluation process
goes through
3 days. The Task Force on Development of Assessment Centre Standards
has recommended that a technique can be considered as assessment centre only
if it meets the following requirements.
1. Multiple assessment techniques must be used and at least one of these

techniques must be a simulation.
2. Multiple trained assessors must be used.
3. Judgements must be based on pooled information from all assessors.
4. Evaluation must be made at a time separate from the observation of
behaviour.
5. Simulation exercises used in this method should first be tested for their
reliability, validity and objectivity.
6. The dimensions, attributes, characteristics, or qualities evaluated by the
programme must be determined by an analysis of relevant job behvaiour.
360-Degree Appraisal
Another method which can be used to appraise the performance of an
employee is to use 360-degree appraisal. First developed and used in a more
156
formal way by General Electric Company of USA in 1992, this method has
attracted attention of many more companies.
360-degree appraisal is the process of systematically gathering data on a
person’s skills, abilities and behaviours from a variety of sources-the manager
peers, subordinates and even customers and clients. In 360-degree appraisal,
besides appraising the performance of the assessee, his other attributes such as
talents, behaviour, values, and technical considerations are also appraised. How
appraisal information is collected from various sources in 360-degree appraisal is
presented below:
Appraisal by Superior
In 360-degree appraisal the superior appraises the employee on various
dimensions of the job as may be decided. There are three reasons why the
immediate superior must appraise the performance of his subordinates. First, he
is more familiar with his subordinates’ performance. Second, he understands
more specifically where his particular subordinate lacks which may be overcome
by training and development. Third, because of the nature of authority
relationship, the superior is responsible for getting the things done which
necessitates appraisal of his subordinates. However, many biases are likely to
emerge in his appraisal, further, he may not be aware fully about many
behvaiours of subordinates which may be important for appraisal.
Appraisal by Peers.
Peers of an employee are in a better position to evaluate certain aspects
of his behaviour. Since the employee is more closely linked to his peers at the
workplace, they may be able to appraise his contribution to the group
efforts, interpersonal effectiveness, communication skills, reliability, initiative,
etc. however, in such an appraisal, biases are likely to emerge specially if the
appraisal results are used for deciding rewards. Further, appraisal may take the
157
shape of give and take in which there may be reciprocal appraisal. You rate me
good, I will do the same for you.
Appraisal by Subordinates
Subordinates can appraise their superior in terms of how he facilitates
their working, delegates authority, allocates work and resources, disseminates
information, resolves interpersonal conflicts and shows fairness to them.
However, how objective this appraisal is depends on the liberty to which
subordinates enjoy in appraising his superior.
Appraisal by Clients
An employee’s performance is evaluated by the clients who interact with
the employee. These clients may be suppliers of inputs or customers of
output. These clients may rate the employee in terms of his providing services to
them, his cooperation, courtesy, dependability and innovativeness.
ACTIVITIES:
1. Evaluate the development program used in your organization and suggest
measures to improve the same for betterment of employees and
the organization
2. Devise a development program for training the managerial personnel of
the organization in which you are working.
3. Prepare a suitable appraisal method to appraise the performance of
middle level managers of your organization
QUESTIONS FOR SELF EVALUATION:

4. What is development?
5. State the differences between training and development.
158
3. Enumerate various development programs in the light of their pros and cons.
4. Describe different methods of evaluation of development programs.
5. Explain modern methods of employee appraisal.
BOOKS FOR REFERENCE:

1. EDWIN B. FLIPPO – Personnel Management , New York; Mc Graw Hill
2. JOHN P. CAMPBELL - Personnel Training and Development, Annual
Review of Psychology
3. WILLIAM MC GHEE AND PAUL W. THAYER – Training in

Business and Industry, New York; John Wiley.
***
159
Unit - V
Lesson – 1 : Employee Remuneration :
Introduction :
Wage and salary administration affect levels of employee commitment to the
organisation. However, fascinating the individual’s job assignment is, the
employee must be paid. Pay affects the way people work-how much and how
well. A large part of the compensation that people receive from work is
monetary. Although managers are expected to conserve money and distribute it
wisely, many employees feel that they should get more of it for what they do.
Wages, salaries and many employee benefits and services are form of
compensation.
Contemporary employment reward systems attach great prominence to wages
and salaries. In the evolution of economics, the role of financial rewards has
grown. The sophistication of wage and salary administration has increased as
industrialized economies have become more complex. New suggestions for
managing compensation systems are constantly emerging.
Meaning :
Administration of employee compensation is called wage and salary
administration.
According to D.S. Beach “Wage and Salary Administration refers to the
establishment and implementation of sound policies and practices of employee
compensation. It includes such areas as job evaluation, surveys of wage and
salaries, analysis of relevant organizational problems, development and
maintenance of wage structure, establishing rules for administrating wages, wage
payment incentives, profit sharing, wage changes and adjustments,
supplementary payments, control of compensation costs and other related
items.”
According to S.P. Robbins. The term compensation administration or wage and
salary administration denotes the process of managing a company’s
compensation programme. The goals of compensation administration are to
160
Dr. B. Mur ali K rishna, Associate P rofessor, Sri Gowri Degree and P.G. College, K anchar apalem, Visakhapatnam – 8
design a cost-effective pay structure that will attract, motivate and retain
competent employees.”
The wage and salary administration aims to establish and maintain an equitable
wage and salary structure and an equitable labour cost structure.
Objectives of Wage and Salary Administration :
A sound plan of wage and salary administration seeks to achieve the following
objectives :
(i) To establish a fair and equitable compensation offering similar pay for
similar work.
(ii) To attract competent and qualified personnel.
(iii) To retain the present employees by keeping wage levels in tune with
competitive units.
(iv) To keep labour and administrative costs in line with the ability of the
organisation to pay.
(v) To improve motivation and morale of employees and to improve union
management relations.
To
(vi)project a good image of the company and to comply with legal needs
relating to wages and salaries.
To
(vii)establish job sequences and lines of promotion wherever applicable. To
(viii) minimize the chances of favouritism while assigning the wage rates.
According to D.S. Beach, was and salary administration has four main
purposes.
 To recruit persons for a firm
 To control payroll costs
 The satisfy people, to reduce the incidence of quitting, grievances and
fractions over pay and
 To motivate people to perform better.
Principles of Wage and Salary Administration :
The following principles should be followed for an effective wage and salary
administration ;
1. Wage policy should be developed keeping in view the interests of all
concerned parties viz., employer, employees, the consumers and the
society.
2. Wage and salary plans should be sufficiently flexible or responsive to
changes in internal and external conditions of the organisation.
3. Efforts should be made to ensure that differences in pay for jobs are based
on variations in job requirements such as skill, responsibility, efforts and
mental and physical requirements.
4. Wage and salary administration plans must always be consistent with
overall organizational plans and programmes.
161
5. Wage and Salary administration plans must always be in conformity with

the social and economic objectives of the country like attainment of
equality in income distribution and controlling inflation, etc.
6. These plans and programmes should be responsive to the changing local
and national conditions.
7. Wage and salary plans should expedite and simplify administrative
process.
8. Workers should be associated, as far as possible, in formulation and
implementation of wage policy.
9. An adequate data base and a proper organizational set up should be
developed for compensation determination and administration.
10. The general level of wages and salaries should be reasonably in line with
that prevailing in the labour market.
11. There should be a clearly established procedure for hearing and adjusting
wage complaints. This may be integrated with the regular
grievance
procedure, if it exists.
12. The workers should receive a guaranteed minimum wage to protect them
against conditions beyond their control.
13. Prompt and correct payments to the employees should be ensured and
arrears of payment should not accumulate.
14. The wage and salary payments must fulfill a wide variety of human
needs including the need for self actualization.
15. Wage policy and programme should be reviewed and
revised periodically in conformity with changing needs. For
revision of wages, a
Concepts wage committee
of Wages : should also be preferred to the individual judgement
however unbiased
While evolving of a manager.
wage policy, three concepts of wages namely (i) minimum
wages, (ii) fair wages, and (iii) living wages are generally considered. These are
broadly based on the needs of the workers, capacity of the employee to pay, and
the general economic conditions prevailing in a country.
Minimum Wage :
Minimum wage is the one which provides, not merely for bare sustenance of life
but also for the preservation of the efficiency of the workers. For this purpose,
the minimum wage must also provide for some measure of education, medical
requirements and amenities. Minimum wage may be tied by an agreement
between the management and the workers, but is usually determined through
legislation. This is more so in the unorganized sector where labour is unionized.
In the fixation of minimum wages, besides the needs of workers, other factors
like ability of the concern to pay, nature of the jobs, etc., are also considered.
Fair Wage :
162
Fair wage is understood in two ways. In a narrow sense, wage is fair if it is equal
to the rate prevailing in the same trade and in the neighbourhood for similar
work. In a wider sense, it will be fair if it is equal to the predominant rate for
similar work throughout the country and for traders in general. Irrespective of the
way in which fair wage is understood, it can be fixed only be comparison with an
accepted standard wage. Such a standard can be determined with reference to
those industries where labour is well organized and has been able to bargain well
with the employers.
Living Wage :
Living wage is a step higher than fair wage. Living wage may be described as
one which should enable the wage earner to provide for himself and his family
not only the bare essentials of life like food, clothing and shelter, but a measure
of frugal comfort including education for children, protection against ill health,
requirements of essential social needs and/or measure of insurance against the
more important misfortunes including old age. Living wage must be fixed
considering the general economic conditions of the country. The concept of
living wage, therefore varies, from country to country. In the more advanced
countries, living wage itself forms the basis for the minimum wage.
In India, minimum wage is determined mainly for sweated industries under the
provisions of the Minimum Wages Act, 1948. Fair wage is fixed for other
industries considering prevailing rates of wages, productivity of labour, capacity
of the employer to pay, level of national income and other related factors.
Tribunals, awards and wage boards play major role in fair wage fixation. Many
people are of the opinion that living wage is a luxury for a developing country
like India and can therefore be deferred.
Components of Wage and Salary :
An average employee in the organized sector is entitled to several benefits-both
financial as well as non-financial. To be specific, typical remuneration of an
employee comprises:
Wages and Salary :
Wages represent hourly rates of pay, and salary refers to the monthly rate of pay,
irrespective of the number of hours put in by an employee. Wages and salaries
are subject to annual increments. They also differ from employee to employee,
and depend upon nature of job, seniority, and merit.
Incentives :
Also called “payments by results”, incentives are paid in addition to wages and
salaries. Incentives depend upon productivity, sales, profit or cost reduction
efforts.
There are: (i) individual incentive schemes and (ii) group incentive
programmes. Individual incentives are applicable to specific employee Where
a, given task demands group effort for completion,
performance
. 163
incentives are paid to the group as a whole. The amount is later divided among
group members on an equitable basis.
Fringe Benefits :
These include such motley crowd of employee benefits as provident fund,
gratuity, medical care, hospitalization, accident relief, health and group
insurance, canteen, uniform, recreation and the like.
Perquisites :
These are allowed to executive and include company car, club membership, paid
holidays, furnished house, stock option scheme and the like. Perquisites are
offered to retain competent executives.
Non-monetary Benefits :
These include challenging job, responsibilities, recognition of merit, growth
prospects, competent supervision, comfortable working conditions, job sharing
and flexi time.
164
Fig. Components of Employee Remuneration
Environment
Remuneration
Financial Non-Financial
Hourly and Incentives Fringe Perquisites Job context

Monthly
rated Benefit
Individu s
Company car Challenging job
Club-Membership Responsibilities
Wages
a l plans
PF Paid Holidays Recognition
Salarie Gratuity Furnished house Growth Prospects
s Group Medical Care Stock Option Supervision
plans Accidental scheme, etc. Working Conditions
Relief Job Sharing, etc
Health and
ce, Etc.
Group
Insuran
Direct Indirect
Factors Influencing wage and Salary Administr ation :

The wage payment is an important factor affecting the labour management
relations. Workers are very much concerned with the rates of wages as their
standard of living is linked to the amount of remuneration they get.
Managements, however, do not come forward to pay higher wages because cost
of production goes up and profits decrease to that extent. A number of factors,
thus, influence the remuneration payable to the employees. These factors can be
categorized into (i) External Factors and (ii) Internal Factors.
A. Exter nal Factor s
External factors influencing wages and salaries are as discussed below:
165
1. Demand and Supply :

The labour market conditions or demand and supply forces operate at the
national and local levels and determine organizational wage structure. When the
demand of a particular type of labour is more and supply is less then the wages
will be more. On the other hand, if supply of labour is more demand on the other
hand, is less then persons will be available at lower wage rates also. In the words
of Mescon, ‘the supply and demand compensation criterion is very closely
related to the prevailing pay, comparable wage and on going wage concepts
since, in essence all of these remuneration standards are determined by
immediate market forces and factors.
2. Cost of Living :
The wage rates are directly influenced by cost of living of a place. The workers
will accept a wage which may ensure them a minimum standard of living.
Wages will also be adjusted according to price index number. The increase in
price index will erode the purchasing power of workers and they will demand
higher wages. When the prices are stable then frequent wage increases may not
be undertaken.
3. Trade Unions’ Bargaining Power :
The wage rates are also influenced by the bargaining power of trade unions.
Stronger the trade union higher well be the wage rates. The strength of a trade
union is judged by its membership, financial position and type of leadership.
Union’s last weapon is strike which may also be used for getting wage increases.
If the workers are disorganized and disunited then employers will be successful
in offering low wages.
4. Government Legislation :
To improve the working conditions of workers, government may pass a
legislation for fixing minimum wages of workers. This may ensure them a
minimum level of living. In under developed countries bargaining power of
labour is weak and employers try to exploit workers by paying them low wages.
In India, Minimum Wages Act, 1948 was passed to empower government to fix
minimum wages of workers.
5. Psychological and Social Factors :
Psychological the level of compensation is perceived as a measure of success in
life. Management should take into consideration the psychological needs of the
employees while fixing the wage rates so that the employees take pride in their
work. Sociologically and ethically, the employees want that the wage system
should be equitable, just and fair. These factors should also be taken into
consideration while devising a wage programme.
6. Economy :
166
Economy also has its impact on wage and salary fixation. While it may be
possible for some organisations to thrive in a recession, there is no doubt that
economy affects remuneration decisions. A depressed economy will probably
increase the labour supply. This, in turn, should lower the going wage rate.
7. Technological Development:
With the rapid growth of industries, there is a shortage of skilled resources. The
technological developments have been affecting skills levels at faster rates. Thus,
the wage rates of skilled employees constantly change and an organisation has to
keep its level upto the mark to suit the market needs.
8. Prevailing Market Rates:
No enterprise can ignore prevailing or comparative wage rates. The wage rates
paid in the industry or other concerns at the same place will form a base for
fixing wage rates. If a concern pays low rates then workers leave their jobs
whenever they get a job somewhere else. It will not be possible to retain good
workers for long.
B. Inter nal Factor s
The important internal factors affecting wage and salary decisions are as follows:
1. Ability to Pay:
The ability to pay of an enterprise will influence wage rates to be paid. If the
concerns is running into losses then it may not be able to pay higher wage rate. A
profitable concern may pay more to attract good workers. During the period of
prosperity, workers are paid higher wages because management wants to share
the profits with labour.
2. Job Requirements:
Basic wages depend largely on the difficulty level, and physical and mental
effort required in a particular job. The relative worth of a job can be estimated
through job evaluation. Simple, routine tasks that can be done by many people
with minimum skills receive relatively low pay. On the other hand, complex,
challenging tasks that can be done by few people with high skill levels generally
receive high pay.
3. Management Strategy:
The overall strategy which a company pursues should determine to remuneration
to its employees. Where the strategy of the organisation is to achieve rapid
growth, remuneration should be higher than what competitors pay. Where the
strategy is to maintain and protect current earnings, because of the declining
fortunes of the company, remuneration level needs to be average or even below
average.
4. Employee:
167
Several employee related factors interact to determine his remuneration.

(i) Performance or productivity is always rewarded with a pay increase.
Rewarding performance motivates the employees to do better in future.
(ii) Seniority. Unions view seniority as the most objective criteria for pay
increases whereas management prefer performance to effect pay
increases.
(iii) Experience. Makes an employee gain valuable insights and is generally
rewarded.
(iv) Potential. Organisation do pay some employees based on their potential.
Young managers are paid more because of their potential to perform even
if they are short of experience.
(v) Luck. Some people are rewarded because of their sheer luck. They have
the luck to be at the right place at the right time.
Process of Salar y and Wage Fixation:

Usually, the steps involved in determining wage and salary rates are as follows :
1. Job Analysis:
A job analysis describes the duties, responsibilities, working conditions and
interrelationships between the job as it is and the other jobs with which it is
associated. Job descriptions are crucial in designing pay systems, for they help to
identify important job characteristics. They also help determine, define and
weigh compensable factors (factors for which an organisation is willing to pay-
skill, experience, effort and working environment). After determining the job
specifications, the actual process of grading, rating or evaluating the job occurs.
A job is rated in order to determine its value in relation to all the other jobs in the
organisation which are subject to evaluation. The next step is that of providing
the job with a price. This involves converting the relative job values into specific
monetary values or translating the job classes into rate ranges.
2. Conduct the Salary Survey:
Compensation or salary surveys play a central role in pricing jobs. Virtually
every employer, therefore, conduct at least an informal survey. Employers use
salary surveys in three ways (i) Survey data are used to price bench mark jobs
that anchor the employer’s pay scale and around which the other jobs are slotted,
based on their relative worth to the firm (ii) Some Jobs (generally 20% or more)
of an employer’s position are usually priced directly in the market place (rather
than relative to the firm’s benchmark jobs), based on a formal or informal survey
of what competitive firms are paying for comparable jobs (iii) Surveys also
collect data on benefits like insurance, sick leave and vacations to provide a basis
for decisions regarding employee benefits.
168
Salary surveys can be formal or informal. Informal telephone surveys are good
for quickly checking on a relatively small number of easily identified and
quickly recognized jobs. Such as when a company’s HR manager wants to
confirm the salary at which to advertise a newly open cashier’s job. In formal
surveys, most firms either use the results of packaged surveys available from the
research bodies, employer’s associations, government labour bureaus etc. or they
participate in wage surveys and receive copies of results or else they conduct
their own. These surveys may be carried out by mailed questionnaire, telephone,
or personal interviews with other managers and personnel agencies.
Wage and salary surveys provide many kinds of useful information about
differences in wage levels for particular kinds of occupations. This can have a
great influence on an organisation’s compensation policy.
3. Group Similar Jobs into Pay Grades:
After the results of job analysis and salary surveys have been received, the
committee can turn to the task of assigning pay rates to each job, but it will
usually want to first group jobs into pay grades. A pay grade is comprised of jobs
of approximately equal difficulty or importance as determined by job evaluation.
Pay grading is essential for pay purposes because instead of having to deal with
hundreds of pay rates, the committee might only have to focus on say 10 or 12.
4. Price Each Pay Grade:
The next step is to assign pay rates to pay grades. Assigning pay rates to each
pay grade is usually accomplished with a wage curve. The wage curve depicts
graphically the pay rates currently being paid for jobs in each pay grade, relative
to the points or rankings assigned to each job or grade by the job evaluation. The
purpose of wage curve is to show the relationship between
(i) the value of the job as determined by one of the job evaluation methods and
(ii) the current average pay rates for the grades.
If there is reason to believe that the present pay rates are substantially out of step
with the prevailing market pay rates for those jobs, bench mark jobs within each
grade are chosen and priced via a salary survey. The new market based pay rates
are then plotted on the wage curve. The steps involved in pricing jobs with a
wage curve are:
(i) Find the average pay for each pay grade, since each of the pay grades
consists of several jobs.
(ii) Plot the pay rates for each pay grade. Then fit a line, called a wage line
through the points just plotted. This can be done either free hand or by
using a statistical method.
(iii) Price the jobs. Wages along the wage line are the target wages or salary
rates for the jobs in each pay grade.
169
5. Fine-Tune Pay Rates :

Fine tuning involves correcting out of line rates and developing rate ranges.
170
(i) Developing Rate Ranges :

Most employers do not pay just one rate for all jobs in a particular pay grade.
Instead, they develop rate ranges for each grade so that there might be different
levels and corresponding pay rates within each pay grade. The rate range is
usually built around the wage line or curve. One alternative is to arbitrarily
decide on a maximum and minimum rate for each grade. As an alternative, some
employers allow the rate range for each grade to become wider for the higher pay
ranges reflecting the greater demands and performance variability inherent in
these more complex jobs.
There are several benefits of using rate ranges for each pay grade. Firstly, the
employer can take a more flexible stance with respect to the labour market. It
becomes easier to attract experienced, higher paid employees into a pay grade
where the starting salary for the lowest step may be too low to attract such
experienced personnel. Secondly, Rate ranges can also allow the employer to
provide for performance differences among employees within the same grade or
between those with different seniorities.
(ii) Correcting our of Line Rates :
The average current pay for a job may be too high or too low, relative to other
jobs in the firm. If a rate falls well below the line, a pay rise for that job may be
required. If the rate falls well above the wage line, pay cuts or a pay freeze may
be required.
Underpaid employees should have their wages raided to the minimum of the rate
range for their pay grade, assuming the organisation wants to retain those
employees and has the funds to do so. This can be done immediately or in one or
two steps.
There are several ways to cope with the over paid employees :
(i) To freeze the rate paid to employees in this grade unless general salary
increases bring the other jobs into line with it.
(ii) To transfer or promote some or all of the employees involved to jobs for
which they can legitimately be paid their current pay rates.
(iii) To freeze the rate for some time, during which time the overpaid
employees should be transferred or promoted. If it cannot be done, then
the rate at which these employees are paid is cut to the maximum in the
pay range for their pay grade.
6. Wage Administration Rules :

The development of rules of wage administration has to be done in the next step.
It is considered advisable in the interests of the concern and the employees that
the information about average salaries and ranges in the salaries of group should
be made known to the employees concerned; for secrecy in this matter may
create dissatisfaction and it may also vitiate the potential motivating effects of
171
disclosure. Finally, the employee is appraised and the wage fixed for the grade he
is found fit.
Methods of Wage Payments :
The different methods of wage payments are as follows :
A. Time Wage System :
This is the oldest method of wage payment. The “Time” is made a basis for
determining wages of a person. The wages are paid according to the time spent
by workers irrespective of his out put of work done. The wage rates are fixed for
an hour, a day, a week or a month. The time spent at work is recorded and wages
are paid according to it. For example, a wage rate of Rs. 15 per day is fixed in a
factory. Two workers A and B attend work for 29 and 25 days respectively. The
wages as per time wage system will be Rs. 435 and 375 for A and B respectively.
This method of wage payment does not give weight age to the quantity of goods
produced by the workers. The supervisor may ensure that workers do not waste
their time and the quality of goods is also maintained. There are no hard and fast
rules for fixing rates of wages. These may be decided according to the level of
the past, higher positions may be paid higher rates and vice-versa.
Wages are calculated in this method as follows :
Earnings = T x R
Where T stands for time spent and R is the rate
of pay.
Suitability :
Time wage system is suitable under following
situations :
(i) When productivity of an employee
cannot be measured or counted.
(ii) Where quality of products is more
important than the quantity.
(iii) Where individual employees do not have
any control over production.
(iv) Where close supervision of work is
possible.
(v) Where work delays are frequent and
beyond the control of workers.
Merits :
1. Simplicity :
The method of wage payment is very simple. The workers will not find any
difficulty in calculating the wages. The time spent by a person multiplied by the
rate will calculate his wages.
2. Security :
Workers are guaranteed minimum wages for the time spent by them. There is no
link between wages and output, wages are paid irrespective of output. They are
not supposed to complete a particular task for getting their wages. They are sure
to get certain wages at the end of a specified period.
3. Better Quality of Goods :
172
When workers are assured of wages on time basis, they will improve the quality
of goods. If wages are related to output then workers may think for increasing
production without bothering about quality of goods. In this method workers will
concentrate on producing better quality goods. In certain situations only time
wage system will be suitable. If some art goods are produced then this method
will be more suitable.
4. Support of Unions :
This method is acceptable to trade unions because it does not distinguish
between workers on the basis of their performance. Any method which gives
different wage rates or wages based on output is generally opposed by unions.
5. Beneficial for Beginners :
Wage rate system is good for the beginners because they may not be able to
reach a particular level of production in the beginning.
6. Less Wastages :
The workers will not be in a hurry to push through production. The materials and
equipment will be properly handled without wastage.
Demerits :
Time wage system suffers from the following drawbacks :
7. No Incentive for Efficiency :
The method does not distinguish between efficient and inefficient workers. The
payment of wages is related to time and not output. Thus, the method gives no
incentive for producing more. Efficient workers may start following inefficient
persons because rates of pay are the same. Rates of wages fixed in this method
are also low because these are fixed by taking into account to output of dullest
workers.
2. Wastage of Time :
Workers may while away their time because they will not be following a target
of production. Efficient workers may also follow slow workers because there is
no distinction between them.
3. Low Production :
Since wage are not related to output, workers may be producing at slower rate.
The responsibility for increasing production may mostly lie on supervisors.
Because of low production overhead expenses per unit will go up.
4. Difficulty to Determine Labour Cost :

Because wages are not related to output, employees find it difficult in
determining labour cost per unit. The output will go on varying from time to
173
time while wages will remain almost the same. Production planning and control
will be difficult in the absence of a relationship between wages and output.
5. More Supervision Required :
Under this system workers are not offered incentives for production. To get more
work from them there will be a need for greater supervision. More supervision
may be needed top maintain proper quality of goods also. In wage system
supervision coast goes up to a great extent.
6. Employer-Employee Trouble :
When all employees, irrespective of their merit are treated equally there is likely
to be a trouble between management and workers. Those employees who are not
satisfied with this method may start disobeying order from their superiors.
B. Piece Wage System
Under piece system of payment, wages are based on output and not on time.
There is no consideration for time taken in completing a task. A fixed rate is paid
for each unit produced, job completed or an operation performed. Workers are
not guaranteed minimum wages under this system. The wages to be paid to a
worker can be calculated as follows : Output x Piece Rate.
The quantity produced by a worker will be multiplied by the rate per unit for
calculating wages. An equitable piece rate should be fixed for giving incentive to
workers for producing more. Different piece rates will be determined for separate
jobs. The factors like efforts involved, conditions under which work is to be
performed, risk involved, etc. should be taken into account while fixing piece
rates.
The piece rate should be reviewed from time to time. These should be linked to
price index so that workers are able to maintain a minimum level of real wages.
Piece rates should also be revised when competitors do so otherwise there may
be a discontentment among workers.
Merits :
The piece rate system has the following merits :
1. Wages Linked to Efforts :
Under piece wage system, wages are linked to the output of a worker. The higher
the output, higher will be the wages. Workers will try to put in more and more
because their wages will go up.
2. Increase in Production :
Production goes up when wages are paid according to piece-rate-system.
Workers will feel encouraged to increase output because their wages will also
increase. This increase is fair to both employees and employers. Efficient
workers will try to exert their maximum to raise their output.
3. Better Utilisation of Equipment :
174
The machines and other equipment will be put to maximum utilisation. Workers
may not like to keep the machines idle. The use of machines will also be
systematic because any breakdown in these may effect the workers adversely.
4. Distinction Between Efficient and Inefficient :
As in time wage system, efficient and inefficient workers are not given equal
treatment. Efficient workers will get more because of their better results.
Inefficient workers, on other hand, will get lower wages because of low
production. There will be sufficient encouragement to efficient workers for
showing better results.
5. Less Supervision Required :
Since payments are on the basis of output, workers will not waste any of their
time. They will continue to work irrespective of supervision. There may be more
and more voluntary efforts on the part of workers and need for supervision is
reduced to a minimum.
6. Effective Cost Control :
The increase in output will result in reduction of overhead costs per unit. Some
of overhead expenses being fixed, increase in production will reduce expenses
per unit. Reduction in cost may benefit consumers in the form of lower price
goods.
7. Better Planning and Control :
The certainty in achieving productions targets will improve planning and control.
When management is sure of certain quantity of production then it can plan
other things with more confidence, it will also ensure better control over
production because targets may be regularly reviewed from time to time.
Demerits :
8. No Guarantee of Minimum Wages :
Under this system of payments workers are not guaranteed minimum wages.
There is a direct relationship between output and wages. If a worker does not
ensure certain production then wages may also be uncertain. Any type of
interruption in work may reduce earnings of workers. So workers are not sure of
getting minimum wages.
2. Poor Quality of Goods :
The workers will bother more about the number of units produced rather than
their quality. This results in the production of sub-standard goods unless
otherwise more supervisors are appointed to keep watch on quality.
3. Not Suitable for Beginners :
The beginners will not be able to produce more goods because of less experience.
They will earn much low wages as compared to experienced workers because
their rate of production will be low.
175
4. Deterioration in Health :
Workers may try to work more than their capacity. This may adversely affect
their health. They may try to work even when they try not keeping good health
because wages are related to production.
5. Cause of Dissatisfaction :
There may be difference in earning of various workers. Some may earn less and
others may earn more. Those who get low wages feel so jealous of others who
earn more and this becomes a cause of dissatisfaction among slow workers.
6. Opposition from Unions :
Piece-rate system of paying wages is opposed by trade unions. There is an
unhealthy competition among workers for increasing their wages. It encourages
rivalry among workers and it may become a cause of disunity. The existence of
unions is endangered when some sections among them feel jealous of others.
Unions will never support a system where workers earn different amounts of
wages and this becomes a cause of disharmony among them.
7. Difficulty in Fixing Piece-Rates :
The fixation of piece rates is not an easy thing. If a low rate is fixed then workers
may not feel encouraged to increase their production. When a high piece-rate is
fixed then it will increase the cost of production of goods. The fixation of piece
rate may become a cause of an industrial dispute. It may be very difficult to fix a
rate acceptable to workers and management.
Types of Piece Rate System ;
Piece rate system may be of three types. These types are as follows :
8. Straight Piece Rate :
In this method one piece rate is fixed and whole production is paid on this basis.
If a piece rate of Rs. 5 per units is fixed then the wages will be calculated by
multiplying output by the rate fixed. A worker production 100 units will get Rs.
500 (100 x 5). If production is raised to 120 units then wages will be Rs. 600
(120 x 5). A worker will have to increase his output in order of get higher wages.
The rate of payment remains the same irrespective of level of output.
2. Increasing Piece Rate :
In this method different rates are fixed for different levels of production. Higher
rates are given when production increase beyond a certain level. For example, a
piece rate of Rs. 1 per unit may be fixed for production upto 100 units, Rs. 1.25
per unit for output between 101-150 units and 1.50 per unit for a production
176
beyond 150 units and so on. There is an incentive to get higher rate for raising
production beyond a certain level.
3. Decreasing Piece Rate :
In this method the rate per unit decrease with increase in output, Rs. 1 per unit
may be allowed upto a production of 100 units 0.90 P. per unit for production
between 101-150 units, 0.85 P. per unit for an output beyond 150 units and so on.
This method discourages workers from raising their output because better efforts
are rewarded at lower piece.
Suitability :
Piece rate system is suitable under following situations :
1. Where quality is important than quantity.
2. When work is of a repetitive nature.
3. When work is standardized and flow of
4. output is continuous.
5. When production of a worker car be separately measured.
6. When strict supervision is not possible.
Where production is closely related to human efforts.
C. Balance or Debt Method :
Balance or debt method is a combination of time and piece wage systems. The
worker is guaranteed a time rate with an alternative piece rate. If the wages
calculated at piece rate exceed time rate the worker gets credit. On the other
hand, if time wages exceed piece wages, the worker is paid time wage and the
deficit is carried forward as debt to be reconserved in future.
Suppose the time rate is Rs. 500 per week and the piece rate is Rs. 4 per unit.
The wages of a worker who products 150, 100 and 125 units in three weeks will
be calculated as follows :
Week Piece Wages Time Wages Credit Debit Balance
First (150 x 4) = 600 500 100 – 100
Second (100 x 4) = 400 500 – 100 NIL
Third (125 x 4) = 500 500 – – NIL
Balance Method
This method provides a sense of security to the employees. At the same time, an
efficient worker has an opportunity to increase his wages. Workers of ordinary
ability are given a sufficient incentive to attain the same standard of living, by
getting guaranteed time wage, even though the excess paid to them is later
deducted from there future credit balance.
177
This method is suitable in industries where the flow of work is minimum. But
rates in this method has to be fixed on the most scientific basis.
178
Lesson – 2 : Salary Packages and Deductions:
Deduction from Wages / Salaries :

Sections 7 to 13 of the Wages Act 1936, deal with the permissible and non-
permissible deductions which can be made from the wages of a worker. One of
the objectives of the Act is to ensure that workers are paid their wages without
any deductions.
Meaning of Deductions :
Every payment made by the employed person to the employer or his agent shall
be deemed to be deduction from wages. However, loss of wages due to any of
the following reasons or penalties shall not be deemed to be deduction from
wages :
1. Withholding of increment of promotion (including the stoppage of
increment) at an efficiency bar;
2. The reduction to a lower post or time scale or to a lower stage in a time
scale; or
3. Suspension but these penalties shall not be regarded as deduction
provided the rules framed by the employer for the imposition of any such
penalties are in conformity with the requirements, if any, which may be
specified in this behalf by the State Government.
Permissible deduction [Sec. 7(2)]. The authorized deductions that can be made
by the employer are given in Section 7(2). The deductions given in Section 7(2)
is exhaustive. No other deduction from wages is legally permissible. The
deductions by this section must be made in accordance with the provisions of
Sections 8 to 14 of the Act. The various deductions are as follows :
1. Fines;
2. Deductions for absence from duty;
3. Deductions for damage to or loss of goods expressly entrusted to the
employed person for custody or for loss of money for which he is
required to account, where such damage or loss is directly attributable to
his neglect on default;
4. Deductions for house accommodation supplied by the employer or by
Government or any housing board or any other authority engaged in the
business of subsidising house accommodation;
5. Deductions for such amenities and services supplied by the employer as
the State Government may authorize. The word ‘service’ does not
include the supply of tools and raw materials required for the purposes of
employment;
6. Deductions for recovery of advances or by adjustment of over-payment
of wages;
179
7. Deductions for recovery of loans made from any fund constituted for the
welfare of labour;
8. Deductions for recovery of loans granted for house building or other
purposes approved by the State Government;
9. Deductions of ‘Income Tax’ payable by the employed person;
10. Deductions made under orders of court or any other competent authority.
11. Deductions for contribution to and repayment of advances from any
provident fund;
12. Deductions for payment to co-operative societies or to a scheme of
insurance maintained by the Indian Post office;
13. Deductions made with the written authorization of the person employed
for payment of any premium on his life insurance policy, or for the
purchase of securities of the Government of India or any State
Government;
14. Deductions for payment of insurance premium on Fidelity Guarantee
Bonds;
15. Deductions for recovery of losses sustained by a railway administration
on account of –
(i) Acceptance by the employed person of counterfeit or base coins
or mutilated or forged currency notes;
(ii) Failure of the employee to invoice, bill, collect or account for
appropriate charges due to that administrator;
(iii) Any rebates or refunds incorrectly granted by the employed
person where such loss is directly attributable to his neglect or
default;
16. Deductions made with the written authorization of the employed person
for contribution to the Prime Minister’s National Relief Fund or to such
other fund, as the Central Government may be notification in the official
Gazette specify. [Inserted by the Payment of Wages (Amendment)
Ordinance, 1975].
Permissible total deductions [Sec. 7(3)]. The total amount of deductions which
may be made under Section 7(2) in any wage period from the wages of any
employed person shall not exceed –
(i) In case where such deductions are wholly or partly made for payments to
co-operative societies, seventy five per cent of such wages; and
(ii) In any other case fifty per cent of such wages.
If the total deductions exceed the limits of 75 or 50 per cent of wages as the case
may be, the excess may be recovered in such manner as may be prescribed.
180
Breach of provisions of this Section is punishable with fine which may extend to
Rs. 500.
Provisions of the Payment of Wages Act Relating to Deductions :
The Payment of Wages Act, 1936 deals mainly with the responsibility for
payment of wages and most important of all deductions which can lawfully be
made from the wages payable to the workmen.
1. Deductions for Fines (Sec. 8) :
Fine may be imposed on employed person for such acts and omissions specified
in notices approved by the State Government or the authority and exhibited in
the prescribed manner on the premises of employment. Fine may be imposed on
an employed person on the fulfillment of the following conditions :
(a) Approval of list of acts or omissions : Fines shall be imposed only in
respect of such acts or omissions which are specified by notice with the
approval of the State Government or of the prescribed authority.
(b) Display of notice : The approved list should be exhibited at or near the
main entrance of the factory or in the case of person employed upon a
railway (otherwise) than in a factory) at the prescribed places.
(c) An opportunity of showing cause : No fine shall be imposed
on any
cause employed person until he has been given an opportunity of showing
(d) against the fine.
Amount of fines : The total amount of fine shall not exceed an amount
equal to half an anna in the rupee of the wages payable to him in respect
of that wage period.
(e) Age limit for the imposition of fine : No fine shall be imposed on any
(f) employed person who is under the age of 15 years.
Not recoverable by installment or after undue delay : The fine cannot be
recovered by installments and after the expiry of 60 days from the date of the
offence.
(g) Day of imposition of fine : Every fine shall be deemed to have been
imposed on the day of the act or omission in respect of which it was
imposed.
(h) Maintenance of Special Register : All fines and amounts realized on
account of such fines shall be recorded in the register prescribed for the
(i) purpose.
Application of the Fund : All such amount of the fines shall be applied to
such purposes beneficial to the persons employed in the factory or
establishment. Where the person employed is a part of a staff employed
under the same management, all such realisations may be credited to a
common fund maintained for the staff as a whole. But such a fund can be
applied only to the approved purpose.
181
Penalty for the breach of the provision of this section is punishable with fine
which may extend to Rs. 500 except in the case of (b) and (i) where the penalty
may extend of Rs. 200.
2. Deductions for absence from duty (Sec. 9) :
The amount of such deduction shall in no case bear to the wages payable to
employed person in respect of the wage period for which the deduction is made a
largest proportion than the period for which he was absent bears to the total
period within such wage period, during which by the terms of his employment,
he was required to work. If ten or more employed persons acting in concert,
absent themselves without due notice and without reasonable cause, such
deduction from any person’s wage may include such amount not exceeding his
wage for eight days as may by any such terms be due to the employer in lieu of
due course.
In the case Jawahar Mills Ltd. Vs Industrial Tribunal AIR (1965) Mad. 92, it was
observed that where the workmen took part in an illegal strike in a public utility
service under Section 22 of the Industrial Disputes Act, there was no reasonable
cause for such a strike.
Penalty for the breach of the provisions of this section is punishable with fine
which may extend to Rs. 500.
3. Deductions for damage and loss (Sec. 10) :

Section 10 of the Acta makes provision for deductions for damages or loss. It
provides that a deduction for damage or loss shall not exceeed the amount of
damage or loss caused to the employer by the neglect or default of the employed
person. But before making any deduction under this section it must be
established that the damage or loss sustained is directly attributable to the neglect
or default of the employed person and he has been given an opportunity of
showing cause against such deductions. All such deductions and realizations
thereof shall be recorded in a register to be kept by the person responsible for the
payment of wages. Penalty for the breach of the provisions of this section is
punishable with fine which may extend to Rs. 500.
4. Deductions for service rendered (Sec. 11) :
Deductions for house accommodation and for amenities and services supplied or
rendered by the employer may be made under Section 7(iv) and (v) of the Act.
But such deductions shall not be made unless the house accommodation amenity
or service has been accepted by him as a term of employment or otherwise, and
such deduction shall not exceed an amount equivalent to the value of the house
accommodation amenity or service supplied and in case of a deduction for
amenity or service, it shall be subject to such conditions as the State Government
may impose.
182
Any contravention of the provision of the above sub-section is punishable with

fine which may extend to Rs. 500.
5. Deduction for Recovery of Advances (Sec. 12) :
Deduction for recovery of advances or for adjustment of over-payment of wages
can be made subject to the following conditions :
1. Recovery of an advance of money given before employment began shall
be made from the first payment of wages in respect of a complete wage
period, but no recovery shall be made of such advances given for
traveling expenses.
2. Recovery from an advance of money given after employment began shall
be subject to such conditions as the State Government may impose.
3. Recovery of advances of wages nor already earned shall be subject to
any rules made by the State Government regulating the extent to which
such advances may be given and the installments by which they may be
recovered.
4. Deductions for recovery of loans granted for house building etc. shall be
subject to any rules made by the State Government regulating the extent
to which such rules may be given and the installments by which they
may be recovered.
5. The amount of all advances sanctioned and the payments thereof shall be
entered in a specified register.
Penalty for contravention of the above sub-section is fine which may
extend to Rs. 500.
6. Deductions for payment to co-operative societies and insurance schemes
(Sec. 13) :
Deductions in respect of the following shall be made subject to such conditions
as the State Government may impose :
(a) For payments to co-operative societies approved by the State
Government.
(b) For payments to a insurance scheme maintained by the Indian
Post Office.
(c) For payment of any premium on his Life Insurance Policy to the
Life Insurance Corporation of India made with the written
authoritsation of the person employed.
(d) For the purchase of securities of the Government of India ; or
(e) For being deposited in any Post Office Saving Bank in
furtherance of any Saving Scheme of any such Government.
Penalty for contravention of the above provisions in the above provisions
is fine upto Rs. 500.
183
Lesson – 3 : Fringe Benefits and Other Monetary Allowances :

Fringe Benefits :
The human concept of labour has been recognized widely in the industrial world.
The employer, though not bound, provides several benefits and services to the
employees, working in the organisation to maintain and promote the employees’
favourable attitude towards the work and work environment, because
maintenance of favourable attitude towards the work and work environment,
because maintenance of favourable attitude is an essential part of motivation and
high morale. Such benefits and services, being a part of wage and salary
administration, include all expenditure incurred to benefit employees over and
above regular wages and direct monetary incentives related to output and are
generally referred to as fringe benefits. The real wages of workers are increased
by the benefits provided by the employer and thus, they are regarded as
supplement to their wages. Many years ago, benefits and services were labeled
‘fringe’ benefits because they were relatively insignificant or fringe components
of compensation. However, the situation now is different, as these have, more or
less, become important part of a comprehensive compensation package offered
by employers to employees.
Definition :
Fringe benefit is a benefit which supplements the employees’ ordinary wages and
which is of value to them and their families in so far as it materially increases
their retirement benefits.
According to the Glossary of Industrial Relations and Wage Terms “Fringe
benefits are supplements to wages received by workers at a cost to the
employers. The term encompasses a number of benefits-paid vacation, pension,
health insurance plans, etc. which usually add up to something more than a
‘fringe’ and is sometimes applied to a practice that may constitute a dubious
benefit for workers.”
According to D. Belcher “Fringe benefits are any wage cost not directly
connected with the employees productive effort, performance, service or
sacrifice.”
According to Cockman “Employee benefits are those benefits which are
supplied by an employer to or for the benefits of an employee and which are not
in the form of wages, salaries and time-rated payment.”
According to Werther and Davis “Fringes embrace a broad range of benefits and
services that employees receive as part of their total compensation package-pay
or direct compensation-is based on critical job factor and performance. Benefits
and services, however, are indirect compensation because they are
usually extended as a condition of employment and are not directly related to
performance.”
The main features of fringe benefits are as follows :
184
1. Fringe benefits are supplementary to regular wages or salaries.

2. These benefits are paid to all the employees based on this
membership in the organisation.
3. These benefits are indirect compensation because these are usually
extended as a condition of employment and are not directly related to
performance.
4. Fringe benefits involve a labour cost for the employer and are not
meant directly to improve efficiency.
5. Fringe benefits raise the living standard of the employees.
6. Fringe benefits refer to items for which a direct monetary value to the
employee can be ascertained eg. Provident funds, pension, etc. On the
other hand, services refers to the items like medical facilities,
recreation, etc.
7. These benefits may be statutory or voluntary. Provident Fund in a
statutory benefit whereas housing in a voluntary benefit.
Objectives of Fringe Benefits :
Fringe benefits are given to achieve the following objectives.
(i) To recruit and retain the best employees.
(ii) To protect employees against certain hazards e.g. life insurance, old
age pension, etc.
(iii) To improve motivation and morale of the employees by satisfying
some unsatisfied needs.
(iv) To improve work environment and industrial relations.
(v) To ensure health, safety and welfare of employees.
(vi) To develop a sense of belongingness and loyalty among workers.
(vii) To meet statutory requirements.
(viii) To satisfy the demands of trade unions.
(ix) To improve the public image of the organisation.
Kinds of Fringe Benefits :

The benefits and services to be included under the title ‘fringe benefits’ are
numerous.
George R. Terry has enumerated as many as 28 benefits under fringes. A few of
them are – Bonus for quality and attendance, contribution to group insurance
plan, lay off and termination pay, travel expenses, suggestion awards, medical
leave with pay, overtime, university and trade courses, etc.
The Chamber of Commerce, USA has included 5 types of benefits under fringe
benefits.
(i) Statutory payments such as old age pension
unemployment insurance, group insurance, etc.
(ii) Payment for pension and labour welfare
185
(iii) Rest or leave with pay

(iv) Payment for time not worked
(v) Other benefits such as
profit sharing,
suggestions
reward, classifications by different persons.
There are different A common and
reimbursement
exhaustive list of tuition
of fringe benefits, thus, cannot be prepared.
fees, in
Fringe Benefits festival
India allowance,
: etc.
The fringe benefits offered by various organisations in India may be broadly
classified into eight categories :
A. Payment for time not worked
B. Employee Security
C. Safety and Health
D. Workmen’s Compensation
E. Health benefits
F. Voluntary arrangements
G. Welfare and Recreational Facilities
H. Old Age and Retirement benefits.
These benefits are discussed as follows :

A. Payment for Time not Worked : This category includes the following :
(i) Paid holidays : According to the Factories Act, 1`948, an adult worker
shall have weekly paid holidays, preferably Sunday. When a worker is
deprived of weekly holidays, he is eligible for compensatory holidays of
the same number in the same month.
(ii) Shift Premium : Companies operating second and third shifts, pay a
premium to the workers who are required to work during the odd hour’s
shift.
(iii) Holiday Pay : Generally organisations offer double the normal rate of
the salary to those workers who work during holidays.
(iv) Paid Vacation : Workers in manufacturing, mining and plantations who
had worked for 240 days during a calendar year are eligible for paid
vacation at the rate of one day for every 20 days worked in the case of
child workers.
B. Employee Security : A minimum and continuous wage or salary gives a
sense of security to the employees. The payment of Wages Act 1936. The
Minimum Wages Act 1948, the payment of Bonus Act 1965, provide income
security to the employees. In addition to this, the Industrial Disputes Act, 1947,
provides for the payment of compensation in case of lay off and retrenchment.
C. Safety and Health : Employees’ safety and health should be taken care of in
order to protect the employees against accidents, unhealthy working
186
conditions and to protect the workers productive capacity. In India, The

Factories Act, 1948, stipulated certain conditions and requirements regarding
working conditions with a view to provide safe working environment.
D.Workmen’s Compensation : In addition to health and safety measures,
provisions for the payment of compensation has also been made under
Workmen’s Compensation Act 1923. The Act is intended to meet the
contingency of invalidity and death of a worker due to an employment injury or
an occupations disease specified under the Act as the sole responsibility of the
employer.
E.Health Benefits : Organisations provide various medical services like hospital,
clinical and dispensary facilities to employees and their family members.
Employees State Insurance Act 1948 deals comprehensively about the health
benefits to be provided. Benefits under this Act include :
(i) Sickness benefit
(ii) Maternity benefit
(iii) Disablement benefit
(iv) Dependent’s benefit
(v) Medical benefit
F.Voluntary Arrangements : Most of the large organisations provide health
services over and above the legal requirements to their employees free of cost by
setting up hospitals, clinics, dispensaries and homeopathic dispensaries.
G.Welfare and Recreation Facilities : Welfare and recreational benefits include (i)
Canteens (ii) Consumer Societies (iii) Credit Socieities (iv) Housing
(v) Legal aid (vi) Employees Counselling (vii) Welfare organisations (viii)
Holiday homes (ix) Educational facilities (x) Transportation (xi) Parties and
picnics (xii) Miscellaneous.
H. Old Age and Retirement Benefits : Employers provide some benefits to the
employees, after retirement and during old age, with a view to create a
feeling of security about the old age. These benefits are called old age and
retirement benefits and include (i) Provident Fund (ii) Pension (iii) Deposit
Linked Scheme (iv) Gratuity and (v) Medical benefits.
The Employees Provident Fund Act provides for the institution of Provident
Fund for employees in factories and establishment.
Employees Pension Fund Act provides family pension and life insurance benefit
to the employees of various establishments. The payment of Gratuity Act, 1972
and Deposit Linked Insurance Scheme 1976 under the PF Act 1952, provide the
respective benefits to the employees.
All organisations may not provide all the benefits discussed due to the financial
stringencies. Moreover, the list of benefits given earlier is not an exhaustive one
187
and some organisations provide different benefits which are not included in the
list owing to their need and the financial ability of the organisations.
188
Lesson – 4 : Wages and Salary Administration in India :
Wage policy refers to all systematic efforts of the government in relation to a

national wage and salary system. It includes orders, legislations, etc., to regulate
the levels or structures of wages and salaries with a view to achieving economic
and social objectives of the government. Specifically, the objectives of wage
policy are :
1) To obtain for the workers a just share of the fruits of economic
development,
2) To set minimum wages for workers whose bargaining position is
weak,
3) To bring about a more efficient allocation and utilization of human
resources through wage and salary differentials, and
4) To abolish malpractices and abuses in wage and salary payments.
The first step towards the evolution of a wage policy was the enactment of the
Payment of Wages Act, 1936. The main objective of the Act is to prohibit any
delay or withholding of wages legitimately due to the employees. The next step
was the passing of the Industrial Disputes Act, 1947, authorizing all the state
governments to set up industrial tribunals which would look into disputes
relating to remuneration. Another notable development that led to the evolution
of wage policy was the enactment of the Minimum Wages Act, 1948. The
purpose of the Act is the fixation of minimum rates of wages to workers in
sweated industries such as woolen, carpet making, flour mills, tobacco
manufacturing, oil mills, plantations, quarrying, mica, agriculture and the like.
The Act was amended several times to make it applicable to more and more
industries. Then came the Equal Remuneration Act, 1976, which prohibits
discrimination in matters relating to remuneration on the basis of religion, region
or sex.
The Constitution of India committed the government to evolve a wage policy.
Successive five year plans documents have also devoted necessary attention to
the need for wage policy. Following the recommendations of the First and
Second Plans, the Government of India constituted wage boards for important
industries in the country. A wage board is a tripartite body comprising
representations from the government, owners, and employees. Technically
speaking, a wage board can only make recommendations, and wage policies are
normally implemented through persuasion.
Inspite of legislations, tribunals and boards, disparities in wages and salaries still
persist. Some of the disparities are :
1. Employees of MNCs are paid much more than their counterparts in
host countries for identical work.
189
2. Different industries have different wage and salary structures

resulting in disparities in remuneration for identical work.
3. Wide gaps exist between wages and salaries of employees in the
organized sector and of those in the unorganized sector, the latter
earning much less than the former.
4. Differences exist between earnings of employees in the government
sector and those in the private sector.
5. Within the government sector salary differences exist among
employees of different departments.
The disparities are glaring. If an illiterate supervisor in a leather processing unit

can earn Rs.12,000/- plus per month and a half yearly bonus, how much can a
university professor earn Rs.10,000/- and no bonus ? If an auto driver can earn
Rs. 3,000/- per month, how much should temporary lecturer in a college earn ?
Rs. 1,200/- per month ? And remain temporary for every. A sweeper in L & T is
an income tax assessee but a BE or a MBBS degree holder works for Rs.800/-
per month in a small scale unit or Rs.1,200/- in a private nursing home
respectively.
There are clerks in Bombay who get nearly twice as much as a labour tribunal
judge – the man who arbitrates everyone’s wages and salaries. And a head clerk
in the LIC gets, at the maximum of his grade, more than half of the salary of a
high court judge, not less.
In order to correct such disparities, the Government of India appointed a
committee headed by Mr.Bhootalingam in 1979. The brief given to the
Committee was to suggest rational and integrated wage policy covering all
sectors of the economy. Soon after the Committee submitted its report, there was
hue any cry raised against the recommendations. It was criticized as anti- labour
and impracticable. The report was promptly and predictably short down.
SUMMARY
Wages and Salary Package :
Employees remuneration has different connotations for different people. For
employee it means status and standard of living, for employer it adds to the cost,
and to the human resource management, administration of remuneration is an
important activity.
Remuneration comprises both financial as well as non-financial benefits. Only
financial benefits are considered in this chapter.
External and internal factors have an impact or an employee’s pay package.
Factors external to an organisation include labour market, going rate, cost of
living, labour unions, labour laws, society and the economy. Internal
environment, on the other hand, includes company’s ability to pay, job
evaluation and performance appraisal, and the worker himself/herself.
190
The common practice followed for wage and salary determination is to fix the
rate per unit of time (per day, per month or per annum) and calculate the total
wages by multiplying the number of units of time with the rate per unit of time.
The wage policy in our country is governed by several legislative provisions and
constitutional requirements. The other issues covered in the chapter are wage
concepts and international remuneration.
Fringe Benefits :
Fringe refers to all those monetary benefits that the employees receive in
addition to direct remuneration. Fringe benefits are popular because they enhance
employee earnings, help attract and retain competent personnel, reduce fatigue,
minimize overtime costs and discourage labour unrest.
Employee benefits are legion. Irrespective of the types of remuneration, fringe
benefits need to be administered satisfying certain principles. Genuine
commitment, matching an employee’s felt need, cost effectiveness and sound
planning are some such principles.
Administration of fringe benefits must proceed step by step, the steps being : (i)
establishing benefit objectives ; (ii) assessing environmental factors, (iii) making
the benefits competitive ; (iv) communicating benefits to employees ; and (v)
evaluation and control.
The future of fringe benefits is clear – there will be more and more demand for
them and the employers must be prepared to meet the growing demand.
Discussion Questions :
1, What do you understand by wage and salary administration ? State its
objectives and basic principles.
2. Differentiate between minimum wage, fair wage and living wage.
3. Bring out the components of employee remuneration.
4. Outline the external as well as Internal Factors influence the employee
remuneration.
5. Bring out the procedure for fixing of employee salary.
6. Define wages. Discuss the provisions of the payment of wage Act with
regard to deductions which may and which may not be made from wages.
Discuss the provisions of the payment of wages Act 1936, relating to
7. deductions of (i) damages or loss (ii) services rendered (iii) recovery of
advance and (iv) payment of cooperative societies.
What do you mean by Fringe benefits ? What are the objective of fringe
8. benefits.
Describe the various types of fringe benefits offered to employees in
9. India.
10. Discuss the salary and wage Administration in India.
191
References and Notes :

1. Laxmi Narain (1973) “Managerial Compensation and Motivation in
Public Enterprises : New Delhi Oxford & IBH.
2. Subrammanium, k.N. (1979) “Wages in India” New Delhi : Tata
McGraw Hill.
3. Shasi K. Gupta & Rosy Joshi – ‘Human Resource Management’ – India
– Kalyani Publishers, 2002.
4. K. Aswathappa – Human Resource and Personnel Management – Tata
McGraw Hill, 1997.
5. D.P. Jain – “Industrial and Labour Laws” – Konark, 1991. Arun
6. Monappa & Mirzas Saiyadain – Tata McGraw Hill, 1979.
7. Thaker, C.P. (1985), “Corporate Strategy on Fringe Benefits” Dean :
Spectrum Publishing.
192

Human Resource Development Ipmortant Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Human Resource Development Ipmortant Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Human Resource Development Ipmortant Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MBA-HRM Human Resource Development

LEARNING OBJ ECTIVES

CONCEPT OF LEARNING OBJ ECTIVE

The term learning involves the following:-

Components of learning objectives:-

The learning objectives has the following components:-

1. Audience- Audience is the target of learning objective and the audience

1. The learning objective should identify a learning outcomes – The main

- Change the objective or

3. The learning objective should be precious:- Its some have difficulties to

To make the objective of learning the affective steps are as under:-

- Starts class on schedule.

- Grades tests and distributes scores as required.

TECHNIQUES OF MOTIVATION FOR ACHIEVING LEARNING

Learning Objective and Techniques of Motivation

Knowledge, Understanding, application and creativity can be used as criteria for

This objective is achieved to develop the recall and recognition abilities

The understanding objective is realized by developing the abilities of

An application objective is achieved by developing the abilities of

The types of domains of learning

The domains of learning are of three types:

1. Cogitative Domains- The cogitative refers to an individual idea thoughts

The cognitive theory recognizes the rol of an organism in receiving,

At the end we can say that we understand about an individual cognitive

The value learnt can be divided into two broad categories:

FAMILY FACTORS - The factors influencing the process of

GENERICE MOVEMENT - The movement are process, which facilitate the

The main focus of teaching is to facilitate learning. Where there is teaching

1. Teaching can be made effective by relating it to learning.

In the present environment methods of learning are as follow:-

It involves the following Strategies:

Autocratic Style Strategies

It is his oldest teaching method given by idealism philosophy lecture can be

a) The content is pretend as whole.

2.) Lessons Demonstration:

Employees following Principles:

a) The skill may be developed by imitation.

Considered as both autocratic and permissive type of learning. A lecture

solved in lecture. Tutorials are highly individualized type of

Employees following Principles:

a) It considers the individual differences.

In this type of tutorials students and teachers meaning are arranged

It is the new strategies of teaching. It has revolution the process of

Employees the following Fundamental Principles:

a) Principle of small steps

Per missive Style Strategies:

It is developed by famous philosopher Socrates. He assumes that all

Heuristic means “Discovered /Investigate”. It is based on The assumption

This strategy is developed by J.S.Burner. The Discovery and Heuristic are

Employees follows the following principles of learning:

a) The learner remains active

4.) Group Discussion

There is no comprehensive definition of group discussion, but it

This type of discussion is more autocratic in style.

In this situation, discussion is more permissive or

Employees following Principles

a) Principle of active participation.

It is also known as stimulated social skills training or teaching. It is most useful

IMPORTANCE OF TEACHING TECHNIQUES INTRODUCTION