Engineering Geology (CEng2141 & ECTS 5)

Chapter 1 to 4
By Dagnachew D. (MSc, MEng, PME)
 Engineering Geology (CEng2141 & ECTS 5)
By Dagnachew D. (MSc, MEng, PME)
Chapter 1. Introduction
1.1 The Earth and Its Structure
Chapter 2. Rock & Rock Forming Minerals
2.1 Rock
2.1.1 Type
2.1.2 Process of formation
Chapter 3. Geological Structures
3.1 Folds
3.2 Faults
3.3 Discontinuities
Chapter 4. Surface Processes
4.1 Weathering
4.2 Soil formation
4.3 Erosion
 Chapter 1
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Earth and Its Structure
The Science of Geology

What is Geology?
Geology -is the science of the earth that deals about its
composition, structure, history and its past plant and
animal’s life .
The word geology is derived from the Greek word i.e.
geo- earth and logos –discourse.
As a civil engineers, why do we study Geology?

Civil engineering works are all carried out on or in the

ground, its properties and processes are therefore
significant.

Branches of Geology
The science is commonly divided into the field of
physical geology and historical geology

1.Physical geology – deals with the materials that

constitute the earth, the structure and surface features of the
earth and the processes that have given the earth its present
structure and appearance
2. Historical geology -deals with the history of the earth –
its changing face and structure and changing forms of
living things whose remains or traces are found as
fossils in the rocks
Geology is further divided into a number of branches
according to subject matter and industrial or commercial
applications
Based On Subject Matter > 9 branches
I. Geochemistry-study of the chemistry of the rock and of
the waters and atmosphere
II. Geomorphology-the study of land forms and their
origin and development
III.Geophysics -the application of physics to the study of
the earth
IV. Mineralogy -the study of minerals
V. Oceanography - the study of oceans and their basins
VI. Paleontology -study of the life of past geologic periods
and the evolution of plants and animals whose remains
and traces are found in the rocks
VII.Petrology - the systematic study of rocks especially
their origin
VIII.Stratigraphy - the study of layered rocks chiefly
those of sedimentary origin
IX. Structural geology -deals with the forces causing rock
bodies to be deformed or broken
 Branches Based On Application
I. Economic geology -deals with the commercial and
industrial uses of the sources of the earth
II. Agricultural geology- the study of soils especially of
their depletion and erosion
III. Engineering geology –uses the knowledge of geology
applied to the building of dams, reservoirs, highways,
bridges, tunnels, irrigation works, and other projects
IV. Hydrogeology -the study of surface and under ground
water
V. Mining geology - geology applied to the finding and
extraction of metallic deposits and nonmetallic resources
VI. Petroleum geology- the study of the origin and
occurrence of petroleum
 Internal Structure of the Earth
The interior of the earth is variable consisting of
concentric shells which defer in composition, density,
elasticity, and state
a) Earth quake waves- the behavior of earth quake
waves shows clearly that the earth is zoned.

as they travel from one zone to an other ,the

waves change in velocity according to the nature of
the material through which they pass. They are also
reflected and refracted at the boundary between
the zones;

these rather sharp breaks are called discontinuities

b) Specific Gravity of the Earth

Dividing the mass of the earth by its volume gives the

specific gravity or density as 5.516
Since the surface rocks have specific gravities ranging
from 2.6 to 3.0 the buried rocks must have much greater
specific gravities

c) Shape of the Earth

the magnitude of the bulge of the earth at the equator
which is due to its rotation, indicates that the earth has
a very heavy core and does not become regularly more
dense from the surface to the center
Internal Structure of the
Earth are three:-
 I) The Crust
The crust is the uppermost envelope of the earth. It is a
well solidified shell consists of different types of rocks. Its
surface encompasses the different topographic features of
the earth’s surface. The Earth’s crust is in two types:
1- Continental Crust: This is a light crust (S. G.=2.7-2.9
gm/c.c.), consists of rocks rich in Si and Al, so it is termed as
SIAL CRUST. It is usually found beneath the Mountains and
Continents. Its thickness ranges between 30–100 km below
sea level,
Commonly has light colour.
2- Oceanic Crust: This is a heavy crust (S. G.=3.5- 4.1 gm/c.c.),
consists of rocks rich in Si and Mg, so it is termed as SIMA
CRUST. It is usually found beneath the Seas and Oceans. Its
thickness ranges between 8-12 km bsl., It is of darker colour.
The crust ends at Mohorovicich Discontinuity of the short waves.
The crust is well balanced over the very mobile molten
envelope below (the Mantle), although there is a great
variation in altitudes between mountain peaks (up to 8.8
km) and ocean floors (down to 10.5 km).

This is related to the fact that below the mountains &

continents the crust is light and consists of (SIAL-type)
whereas below the oceans it is of the heavy SIMA-type.
Therefore, thick and light mass is in balance with the other
thin and heavy mass over the mobile mantle.
 II) THE MANTLE
The mantle is a thick envelope that constitutes
more than 1/3 of the Earth planet. It extends from
the base of the crust (~100km) to 2883 km (the top of
the Core).
Generally, it is a semi-molten part of the earth
whose uppermost parts are rather rigid and is called
Asthenosphere (the semi-solid or rigid uppermost
part of mantle). The amount of the molten materials
increase downward where a marked decrease in the
short waves is recorded.
 The Mantle is divided into two parts, according to its
physical characters:
1)Outer Mantle:
A hot envelope of semi-molten materials whose top parts
are semi-solid (Asthenosphere). Its general composition
consists of Si + Mg rich minerals (i.e.: SIMA). The Outer
Mantle is usually traversed by huge, but slow convection
currents that result in fragmentation of the overlying
crustal plates
2) Inner Mantle:
A hot envelope of molten materials. Its general composition
consists molten Si + Mg rich minerals (i.e.: SIMA). The Inner
Mantle is usually of more temperature than the above shell.
Toward its base the short waves display great reduction in
their velocities ( Gutenberg Discontinuity)
 III) The Core
The Core is the thickest envelope in the earth. It is
the central mass of the planet where it constitutes
more than 2/3 of the Earth. It extends from the base
of the inner mantle (~2883km) to the Earth’s center
(~7500km).
The Core composition reflects the original nature of
the earth planet. The core is commonly rich in Fe &
Ni, the same as meteorites, evidencing that all
individuals of the solar system derived from one and
the same cosmic body
The core is divided into two parts:
1) Outer Core:
A very hot envelope of strongly molten materials . It is
mainly composed of molten SIMA as well as some S, Ni
and Fe. Due to the great overlying pressure, this part
behaves as solid, however, it is a real melt, so the short
waves suffer a great reduction in the velocities in this
part.
2) Inner Core:
A very hot envelope of strongly molten materials. It is
entirely composed of molten Ni and Fe, the same as
meteorites. Due to the very excessive overlying pressure,
this part behaves as solid, so the short waves display
increase in velocities in this part.
Geologic Processes

The geologic processes operating upon and with in the crust

of the earth, and are responsible for shaping of the earth
surface are:
Gradation- processes of weathering, decomposition and
disintegration
Aggradations- Deposition processes by the accumulation of
sediment
Degradation- wearing down of rocks by water, Ice, and wind
Volcanism- movements of molten rock and the formation of
solid rock
Diastrophism- movements of the solid part of the earth
resulting in displacement (faulting or folding)
Divisions of The Earth
The earth is divided into three zones corresponding to
the three states of matter constitute the earth.
• Lithosphere
• Hydrosphere
• Atmosphere
Lithosphere -is the relatively brittle outer rock layer,
consisting of the crust and upper mantle; it is broken
into large slabs known as plates.
Hydrosphere -a sphere of water containing absorbed
water, and carrying particles of rock as sediment
surrounds the earth
Atmosphere – the envelope of gases surrounding the
earth
Plate Tectonics
Plates are rigid bodies of rock that essentially float atop a region
of partial melt called the asthenosphere. The plates comprise the
lithosphere, composed of the crust (which is the rigid, outermost
layer of the Earth) and the solid portion of the upper mantle.

• Plate tectonics are the relative movements of the plates as they

are shifted by the underlying mantle flows.
• Convection currents circulate within the mantle because it is
heated from below - and the convection cells have horizontal
movements over their tops.
• Each plate is relatively stable, but disturbances along the plate
boundaries cause most geological processes.
• The formation of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks,
and their subsequent deformation or erosion, can be identified on
the cross-section diagram through two plate boundaries.
•What are the types of plate boundaries?
The importance of geology in civil
engineering may briefly as follows:
a/ Geology provides a systematic knowledge of
construction material, its occurrence,
composition, durability and other properties.
b/ The knowledge of the geological work of natural
agencies such as water, wind, ice and
earthquakes helps in planning and carrying out major
civil engineering works.
c/ Ground water is the water which occurs in the
subsurface rocks. The knowledge about its quantity
and depth of occurrence is required in civil engineering
works.
d/ The foundation problems of dams, bridges and
buildings are directly concerned with the
geology of the area where they are to be built. In these
works drilling is commonly undertaken
to explore the ground conditions. Geology helps greatly
in interpreting the drilling data.
e/ In tunneling, constructing roads, canals, docks and in
determining the stability of cuts and
slopes, the knowledge about the nature and structure of
rocks is very necessary.
f/ Before staring a major engineering project at a place,
a detailed geological report which is accompanied by
geological maps and sections, is prepared. Such a
report helps in planning and constructing the projects.
Chapter 2: Rocks and Rock Forming Minerals
 The make-up of solid matter on Earth:
Atoms  Elements  Compounds  Minerals  Rocks
(smallest) (largest)

What are minerals?

-are naturally occurring inorganic crystalline structure having distinctive physical
properties and chemical composition.
All minerals are:
Inorganic
Naturally Occurring
Characteristic Chemical Composition
Distinctive Physical Properties
Have a Crystalline Structure
More than 2,000 different kinds of minerals have been identified However only about 30 are
considered common
- Rocks are aggregates of minerals or organic
substances
• - The Knowledge of the main rock forming
mineral is therefore essential to the study of rocks
• - According to their origin, rocks are divided into
three groups, namely,
- Igneous,
- Metamorphic and,
- Sedimentary rocks.
A mineral is a homogeneous substance that has
- a definite chemical composition which can be
represented by
- a chemical formula and
- an orderly geometric arrangement of atoms.
Being homogenous, a mineral exhibits
- uniformity and consistency in its properties,
which are the qualities and characteristics by which it
may be recognized and identified. These properties may
be physical or chemical
Chemical Composition of Minerals

• Some minerals consist of only one of the ninety two occurring

chemical elements, which may be a metal or none metal.

• Most minerals however consist of two or more elements united in

a compound such as quartz the chemical name is silicon dioxide,
Si O2.

•The chemical formula of a compound gives its composition by means

of short hand notation in which each element is represented by a
symbol and numerals indicate the proportion in which each element
is present.
•Thus the formula SiO2 means that quartz consists of an
arrangement of silicon and oxygen atoms in the ratio of 1:2
 Mineral Properties
• Minerals are analyzed for these common properties
– Color
– Crystal Form - reaction with acid
– Luster - magnetism
– Hardness - striations
– Streak - specific gravity
– Cleavage
– Fracture

• Be able to identify minerals in hand sample on

the basis of their properties
 Color

• Most noticeable property

• color is not always diagnostic

• variety names

– Ex: Quartz (SiO2) can be Amethyst (purple),

Citrine (orange), and numerous other varieties

 Crystal Form
• This is their body shape.
• It is a reflection of the crystal structure and how the
crystal grew.
• habit
• It is an EXTERNAL feature
• It is common for crystals to crowd as they grow,
forcing crystals to become intergrown and thus not
display a crystal form.

• Ex. aragonite, selenite

 Luster
• How light reflects from the surface of an object
• 2 main types
– Metallic
– Non-metallic
Hardness
• resistance to scratching

• Mohs Scale of Hardness

– Hardness 1 to 10
 Streak
• Can be VERY diagnostic
• The color of a substance when in a powder
• Scratch the mineral across a hard surface such as your
streak plate.
• Hardness of streak plate is 6.5
 Cleavage and Fractures

• Cleavage - the tendency of a mineral to break along flat parallel

surfaces.
• Cleavage can be VERY DIAGNOSTIC of some minerals
– Excellent, good, poor
– Ex. Calcite v. Quartz
• Fracture - Any break in a mineral that does not occur along a
cleavage plane.
• Fracture may be diagnostic
– Uneven, splintery, hackly, conchoidal
Ex. quartz
 Special properties

• Reaction to acid (HCL)

– Fresh surface
– Always reacts? Or only when powdered?
– Calcite and dolomite

• Striations
– Straight “hairline” grooves on cleavage surfaces
 Special properties

• Magnetism – influences some minerals containing iron.

Hematite and Galena can be attracted to a magnet

• Specific gravity – the relative weight of a mineral

compared to water as a standard is termed its specific
gravity

• Fluorescence
Rock Forming Minerals

• All the minerals of the earths crust occur in and among

the rocks, for they are an integral part of the rock.

• Silicate minerals are by far the most common rock

forming minerals; they constitute about 95% of the earths
crust.

•The important silicate minerals are;

Feldspars, Feldspathoids, Quartz, Pyroxenes,
Amphiboles, Micas, and Olvines
(refer the definite properties of each minerals )
 ROCKS

Rocks are the essential building materials of which the

earth is constructed.
• The geologist’s definition of rock;
- Any mass of mineral matter, whether consolidated
or not, which is forming part of the earth’s crust.

• Rocks may have only one mineral species, in which

case they are known as monomineralic but they usually
have an aggregate of mineral species.
The rocks are broadly classified into three groups;

1. Igneous Rocks
2. Sedimentary Rocks
3. Metamorphic Rocks
 Rock cycle

Rocks are always

changing in a pattern
called the rock cycle.
Over time, they break
down. The minerals in
them get recycled to
form new rocks. These
processes can take
millions of years.
 Igneous Rocks
• Igneous rocks are formed by cooling and
solidification of magma.
• Magma is a hot viscous, siliceous melt containing
water vapor and gasses.
– It is composed mainly of O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, Na, and K
– When a magma comes out upon the earths
surface it looses its gasses such a magma is called
lava
 Origin of Magma
• At certain distance below the surface ,the temperature
is such that all rocks would be molten
• A number of possible sources of heat creating the
magma are described below;
I. Original heat
II. Compaction and contraction
III. Radioactivity
• Original Heat - rocks are very conductors of heat, and
the loss of heat from the earth’s is extremely small.
• - If the earth was one time an incandescent (glowing)
ball of fire, a molten sphere, or even a hot solid sphere,
some of the original heat may still remain .
• Compaction and Contraction- If the earth would
develop considerable internal heat through the slow
compaction of the material (under the pressure of
gravity) and contraction of the cooling planet,
• - Also contraction associated with the folding of
layers of rocks would generate large quantities of heat.

• Radioactivity- Certain unstable chemical elements

break down spontaneously, providing energy that is a
likely source of all the heat necessary to explain the
phenomena of volcanism
Chemical composition of magma
- sio2 which in common igneous ranges from 40 to 75% by
weight
- Al2O3 generally ranges from 10 to 20 %
- other major components exceed 10 %

Magma are divided in to two broad divisions

• Acidic magma- rich in Si, Na, and K and poor in Ca, Mg, and Fe
- light in color, low in specific gravity about 2.7
• Basic magma – rich in Ca, Mg, and Fe and poor in Si, Na, and K
- dark in color, relatively high in specific gravity
about 3.2
• On the basis of the silica percentage, Igneous rocks
are classified
i. Ultra basic rock-These contain less than 45% silica
e.g. Peridotie
ii. Basic rocks - These contain silica between 45% and 55%
e.g. Gabbro and basalt
iii. Intermediate rocks - These contain silica between 55%
and 65% e.g. Diorite
iv. Acid rocks - These contain more than 65% silica
e.g. Granite
Occurrence of igneous rocks
- Magma is produced deep in the earths crust where
temperature is 900-1600oC
• Based on consolidation or cooling process there are
two major types of igneous rocks;
I. Extrusive
II. Intrusive
I. Extrusive - The rocks formed due to
solidification of lava are called
extrusive rocks.
- When magma reaches
the earth’s surface, it
causes a volcanic
eruption.
• As the lava tend to cool
and crystallize rapidly,
the texture of the
volcanic rocks are
generally fine grained .
• Pyroclastic material- volcanic ejected rock fragments.
• fine dust-sized particles erupted during volcanism
referred as volcanic ash.
II. Intrusive Rocks – are formed when magma
crystallizes beneath the earths surface.
Depending on the depth of formation, intrusive rocks
are divided in to two groups;
I. Plutonic rocks
II. Hypabyssal rocks
I. Plutonic rocks
- Rocks crystallized at a
great depth
- cools slowly with the
retention of the volatiles,
- it have time to grow to
considerable size giving
the rock coarse grained
texture.
 II. Hypabyssal rocks
- when magma solidifies close to the earth’s surface.
- occur as injections with in the country rocks.
- Their textures are usually finer grained than those of
plutonic rocks, but coarser than those of volcanic rocks
e.g. batholiths, stock, dykes, sill, etc.

Diorite

The intrusive bodies are divided into two groups:

I. Discordant bodies
II. Concordant bodies
• Discordant bodies
-the discordant igneous bodies are those which cut
through the overlying strata.
Concordant bodies
-the concordant igneous bodies are those which lie between
rock beds, such bodies do not show transgressive relation to the
rock they invade.
 Sedimentary Rocks
• The total amount of sedimentary rocks that exists in
the upper 16 km of the earths crust is estimated to be
only about 5%.
• sedimentary rock are found chiefly as an extensive
cover over the continents
• Sedimentary rocks are formed by consolidation and
cementation of sediments deposited under water.
• Sedimentary rocks also include the rocks formed by
accumulation of chemically precipitated or organically
derived material .
• sedimentary rocks occur in layers and frequently contain
fossils
• Sedimentary rock
The formation of sedimentary rocks takes place in three
ways:
I. Weathering and erosion
- weathering and erosion sediments are produced
transported (water or wind) deposited

II. Sedimentation
- The process of accumulation of sediments at a site
of deposition is called sedimentation. The material
carried in solution precipitates and accumulates
III. Lithification and diagenesis
- It is a process by which soft and loose sediments are
converted in to hard and firm rocks.
• During this process many physical and chemical
processes take place with in the sediment, such changes
are called the diagenetic changes and the process is
described as diagenesis.
• The three diagenesis processes are;
• Compaction- in which the rock or mineral particles
are brought closer together by the pressure of overlying
materials.

• Cementation- in which porous materials are bound

together by minerals precipitated from water solution
such as silicon dioxide (quartz), calcium carbonate
(calcite), and the iron oxides(limonite and hematite)
• Recrystallization- in which a rock with an interlocking
crystalline fabric or grain, such as crystalline limestone,
is developed by the continued growth of the mineral
grains in a sediment.

• The sediments from which sedimentary rocks are

formed may be divided into two major groups;
– Clastic sediments
– Nonclastic sediments
• Clastic sediments - are broken fragments of preexisting
rocks ranging in size from minute clay particles to very
large boulders

Conglomerate
• Non-clastic Sediments- include those sedimentary rocks
which are formed by chemical precipitation of minerals
from water or by accumulation of remains of animals
and plants.

Kaolinite clay
• The non-clastic rocks are classified into two groups;
1. Chemically formed rocks
- chemical sediments are derived from the dissolution of
materials from older rocks
a) Carbonate Rocks - e.g. limestone and dolomites
b) Salt Rocks - formed by the evaporation of saline lakes e.g.
Evaporates (rock salt, gypsum, and anhydrite)
c) Ferruginous Rocks – rocks formed from chemical
precipitation of iron oxide e.g. ironstone
d) Siliceous Deposits -formed when silica is deposited from
water e.g. flint, chert, agate
2. Organically formed rocks
• Those rocks are formed mainly from remains of animals
or plants, e.g. shell and coal
 Metamorphic Rocks
– Metamorphic rocks are formed from older rocks
when they are subjected to increased temperature,
pressure and shearing stress at considerable depth in
the earth’s crust.
– During metamorphism recrystalization takes place
essentially in the solid state and new minerals and
new textures are produced
Agents of Metamorphism
a) Heat
b) Uniform pressure
c) Directed pressure or stress
d) Chemically active fluids and gases
Heat - when the earth temperature increases with
depth, as a result appreciably high temperature
exists at great depths.

Uniform Pressure- The pressure is due to the

weight of the overlying rocks

Directed Pressure - Directed pressure or stress

operates during folding movements that accompany
mountain building.

Chemically Active Fluids and Gases - chemically

active fluids and gases when pass through the pores
of the rocks, they bring changes in their original
composition.
Process of Metamorphism
a. Granulation
b. Plastic deformation
c. Recrystalization
d. Metamorphism

Granulation - pressure shatters the rocks and the

pressure is so great that the rocks are partially melted.
This process where crushing of the rocks takes place
with out loss of coherence is called granulation.

Plastic Deformation - when a solid is subjected to

stresses, its shape changes on the removal of
stresses. If the solid does not regain its original shape,
it is said to be plastically deformed
Recrystalization - Recrystalization the process of
formation of either new minerals or the formation of
new crystals of the preexisting minerals
Recrystalization causes mineralogical and textural
changes in rocks during metamorphism.
 TYPES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS

1. Slate - slates are dark colored

exceedingly fine grained, low
grade metamorphic rocks.
They have remarkable
property called slaty cleavage
which permits them to split
into thin broad sheets.

2. Schist - Schists are coarse

grained metamorphic rocks which
show well developed foliation or
schistocity along which the rock
may be easily broken.
3. Phyllite - is formed due to metamorphism of shales.
-They represent an intermediate stage of metamorphism
between slate and schist.
4. Gneiss-is a coarse grained, irregularly banded metamorphic
rock having poor schistocity .
5. Quartzite- derived from high grade metamorphism of
sandstone
6. Marble- is a crystalline calcareous metamorphic rock
derived as a result of metamorphism of limestone.
Gneiss

Marble
 Chapter 3
Geological structures

Fault, Fold and

Discontinuities
Diastrophism- is the movements of the solid part of the
earth resulting in displacement.
• As a result of diastrophism, geologic structures are
produced both at and below the surface of the earth, on
a large and on a small scale, rapidly and slowly, rocks
may be deformed by bending or displaced by breaking.
• We think of the earht’s crust as a solid, but rocks are
some what plastic and will bend under great pressure.
• When the pressure up on them exceeds their limit of
elasticity rocks become permanently bent, or deformed.
• Rocks buried at considerable depth, weakened by high
temperature or subjected to long continued Stress are
most likely to bend.
• All rocks are plastic to some degree under directed
pressure, the more plastic bend the more brittle fracture
occur.
• The most common geological structures are:
- Fold
- Fault, and
- Discontinuities
• Fold: is a bend or flexure in a rock unit or series of rock
units that has been caused by crustal movements.
• Folds are wave-like in shape and vary enormously in
size.
folds are divided into two types, that is,
• anticlines - the beds are convex Upwards
• synclines - they are concave upwards.
Terminologies of Fold

There are two important directions associated with

inclined strata, namely,

Dip - the maximum angle at which a bed of rock is inclined

Strike - is the trend of inclined strata
Interlimb angle is the
angle measured
between the two
projected planes from
the limb of the fold and
used to asses the
degree of closure.
The attitude of a fold in terms of the dip of the axial plane

Symmetric fold- occur

when the limbs of the
folds are the same
length and have the
same dip.
Recumbent fold‐ a fold
where both the limbs
become almost
horizontal.
Recognition of folds

1. Topography - by using areas photograph

2. Repeating of out crops of rocks
3. In anticlines the oldest rock bed where as in
synclines youngest bed occurs at the center
position
4. Plunging folds as a rule give rise to Curved out
crops
 Faults

A fault may be defined as a fracture along which

blocks of rocks have been displace relative to each
other. This planer discontinuity originates by tectonic
forces acting regionally.

The displacement along a fault may be less than a

meter, several hundred meters or many kilometers.

Faults result from tensional as well as compressional

forces.
 Formation of fault

Fault Plane‐ The fracture surface

along which relative movement has
taken place.
• Damage zone: disintegration
(shear- and extensional
fractures); original structure
may be observable.
• Fault core: development of
fault rocks (kakirite oder
cataclasite); localisation of
shear
• Fault rock: develops due to
brittle deformation (grain size
reduction) out of the host rock
– fault gouges
•Rock alteration:
Transformation and
Neoformation of (rock-
forming) minerals
• Deep reaching weathering
(additional disintegration)
Discontinuities

A discontinuity represents a plane of weakness

within a rock mass across which the rock material is
structurally discontinuous.
Joints are fractures
along which little or no
displacement has
occurred and are
present within all types
of rocks.

Discontinuities vary in
size from small fissures
on the one hand to huge
faults on the other.
• Joints are formed through failure of rock masses in
tension, in shear or through some combination of
both.

• joints develop within igneous rocks when they cool

down, and in wet sediments when they dry out.
 Factors affecting the characteristics of discontinuities
include the following:

a)Orientation of discontinuities
with respect to the engineering
work,
b)(b) Spacing of discontinuities: rock
mass quality decreases with decrease
in spacing of discontinuities.
(c) Infill type: infill types include silica,
clay, carbonate, oxides, etc
(d) Roughness: with increase in
roughness the frictional resistance
increases.
(e) Continuity: rock mass quality is
lower in continuous discontinuities.
(f) Aperture (opening): rock mass
quality decreases with increase in
aperture of discontinuities.
A group of joints that run parallel to each other are
termed a joint set,
If one set of joints is dominant, then the joints are
known as primary joints, and the other set or sets of
joints are termed secondary.
If joints are planar and parallel or sub-parallel, they
are described as systematic; conversely, when their
orientation is irregular, they are termed
nonsystematic.
The most common discontinuities are
• Joints
• bedding planes.
• planes of cleavage
• schistosity,
• fissures and
• faults.
 CHAPTER‐4
SURFACE PROCESSES
• Weathering, Soil formation, Erosion
What is weathering?
• Weathering is the process of alteration and break
down of rocks at or near the earth’s surface by
physical or chemical and biological effects and
leads to a number of changes in rocks.
• Due to weathering Rocks become more porous,
individual mineral grains are lost
• Weathering changes the index properties of rock.
The rock material become weaker and more
deformable
• The engineering properties of intact rock and rock
masses changed.
 weathering of rocks
• physical disintegration,
• chemical decomposition and
• biological activity.
These processes weakens the rock fabric and
exaggerates any structural weaknesses, all of which
further aid the breakdown processes.
• Weathering also is controlled by the presence of
discontinuities in that they provide access into a rock
mass for the agents of weathering.
• Depth Of Weathering depends on
- the timescale,
- rock type and
- climate
1. Physical weathering (disintegration)
• applied to a variety of weathering processes that

result in
- the particle size reduction of rock materials with
- no change in composition.
The common physical weathering are:
• Unloading joints: stress relief fractures due to
overburden removal.

• Thermal expansion: fracturing due to daily

temperature changes. e.g. exfoliation

• Frost shatter: fracturing as fissure water or pore

water freezes and expands.
• Wetting and drying: movement due to loss or
gain of water in clays.

• Root action: tree root expansion in fissures, and

root growth in pores.

• Crystallization: growth of salt crystals where

groundwater evaporates.
Engineering classification of weathered rocks
2. Chemical weathering
• Chemical weathering processes include,
- Oxidation :A chemical reaction in which substances combine with oxygen.
- Solution: A chemical weathering process in which a material is dissolved.
- hydrolysis: A chemical reaction involving water that results in the
breakdown of mineral material.

Chemical weathering also aids rock disintegration by

weakening the rock fabric and by emphasizing any structural
weaknesses,
Agents of Chemical weathering
• water
• free oxygen
• carbon dioxide
• organic acids and
• nitrogen acids.
•Chemical weathering of limestone

Limestones are composed of calcium carbonate.

Aqueous dissolution of calcium carbonate
introduces the carbonate ion into water, that is, CO 3
combines with H to form the stable bicarbonate,
CaCO3 + H2CO3 ---------- Ca(HCO3)2
Rainwater and soil water weather the limestone
surface, and also dissolve away the rock where
they seep down fractures and bedding planes
thereby creating wide fissures and caves.

This result in potential subsidence, irregular bed

rock surface and leakage problem
The rock forming and cementing
carbonate minerals calcite and
dolomite dissolve completely in
water that contains dissolved carbon
dioxide.

Karst topography characterizes

areas underlain by limestone and to
a lesser degree dolomite.
Surface weathering of limestone
• Weathering of the silicate minerals is primarily a
process of hydrolysis. Much of the silica that is
released by weathering forms silica acid.

• When minerals like feldspars or orthoclase

subjected to chemical weathering, decompose to
form clay minerals,

2KAlSi3O6 + 6H2O + CO2 ------- Al2Si2O5(OH)4 + 4H2SiO4 + K2CO3

(orthoclase) (kaolinite)

3. Biological Weathering
-by micro organisms and plant roots
Soil Formation
Tropical Soils
• In humid tropical regions, weathering of rock is
more intense and extends to greater depths than in
other parts of the world.
Residual soils develop in place as a consequence of
weathering, primarily chemical weathering.
Face responsible for the development of the soil
profile are:
• Climate (temperature and rainfall)
• parent rock
• water movement (drainage and topography)
• age, and
• vegetation
• Ferruginous and aluminous clay soils are frequent
products of weathering in tropical areas.

• They are characterized by the presence of iron

and aluminium oxides and hydroxides.

• These compounds, especially those of iron, are

responsible for the red, brown and yellow colors of
the soils.
• Black clays typically are developed on poorly
drained plains in regions with well-defined wet and
dry seasons, where the annual rainfall is not less
than 1250 mm.
•Black clay undergo appreciable volume changes on wetting
and drying due to the montmorillonite content.
Arid Soils

• Most arid deposits consist of the products of physical

weathering of bedrock formations.
• Many of the deposits within alluvial plains and
covering hillsides are poorly consolidated.
• Minerals that are precipitated from groundwater in
arid deposits also have high solution rates, so that
flowing groundwater may lead to the development of
solution features.
• Problems such as increased permeability, reduced
density and settlement are liable to be associated with
engineering works
Erosion

• Erosion is the name given to the processes that

remove newly formed sediment from bedrock.

• This is followed generally by transportation and

finally, when energy is exhausted, by deposition.

• Erosion can be caused by four agents:

- gravity,
- wind
- running water, and
- glacial action