Mekelle University

Ethiopian Institute of Technology-Mekelle

School of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

Mechanical Vibrations
MEng 3054

Ing. Zina G.
(M.Sc. in Mechanical System Design)
1
 Chapter One
Introduction to Mechanical Vibrations

Contents
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Periodic functions and Fourier Approximations
1.3 Modeling of Dynamic Systems for vibration
1.4 Characteristics of Discrete System Components
1.5 Differential Equation of Motion for 1st Order and
2nd Order system
 Importance of the Study of Vibration
• Why study vibration?
 Vibrations can lead to excessive deflections and
failure on the machines and structures
 Toreduce vibration through proper design of
machines and their mountings
 To utilize profitably in several consumer and
industrial applications
 Toimprove the efficiency of certain machining,
casting, forging & welding processes
 To stimulate earthquakes for geological research
3
 1.1. Basic Concepts of Vibration
What is vibration?
• Vibrations are oscillations of a system about an
equilbrium position.

• Vibration is a dynamic behavior of physical system in which it

oscillates about a certain equilibrium position.
• Mechanical vibration is the motion of a particle or body which
oscillates about a position of equilibrium.
 Basic Concepts of Vibration
 All bodies having mass and elasticity are capable of
producing vibration.
The mass is inherent of the body and elasticity causes
relative motion among its parts.
When body particles are displaced by the application of
external force, the internal forces in the form of elastic
energy are present in the body.
These forces try to bring the body to its original position.
Involves transfer of potential energy to kinetic energy and
vice versa
In this way, vibratory motion is repeated indefinitely and
5
exchange of energy takes place.
 Basic Concepts of Vibration
 Degree of Freedom (d.o.f.) =
min. no. of independent coordinates required to
determine completely the positions of all parts of a
system at any instant of time
 Examples of single degree-of-freedom systems:

6
 Basic Concepts of Vibration

 Examples of single degree-of-freedom systems:

7
 Basic Concepts of Vibration

 Examples of Two degree-of-freedom systems:

8
 Basic Concepts of Vibration
Examples of Three degree of freedom systems:

9
 Basic Concepts of Vibration
Example of Infinite-number-of-degrees-of-
freedom system:

Infinite number of degrees of freedom system are

termed continuous or distributed systems
Finite number of degrees of freedom are termed
discrete or lumped parameter systems
More accurate results obtained by increasing
number of degrees of freedom 10
 Classification of Vibration
Free Vibration:
A system is left to vibrate on its own after an
initial disturbance and no external force acts on
the system. E.g. simple pendulum
Forced Vibration:
A system that is subjected to a repeating external
force. E.g. oscillation arises from diesel engines
Resonance occurs when the frequency of the external
force coincides with one of the natural frequencies of
the system
11
 Classification of Vibration
 Undamped Vibration:
When no energy is lost or dissipated in friction or other
resistance during oscillations
 Damped Vibration:
When any energy is lost or dissipated in friction or other
resistance during oscillations
 Linear Vibration:
When all basic components of a vibratory system, i.e. the
spring, the mass and the damper behave linearly
 Nonlinear Vibration:
If any of the components behave nonlinearly
12
 Classification of Vibration
Deterministic Vibration:
If the value or magnitude of the excitation (force or
motion) acting on a vibratory system is known at any
given time
Nondeterministic or random Vibration:
When the value of the excitation at a given time
cannot be predicted
 Examples of deterministic and random excitation:

13
Vibration…

It is also an everyday
phenomenon we meet
on everyday life
Introduction …
Useful Vibration Harmful vibration

Noise Destruction
Testing
Compressor

Ultrasonic
Wear Fatigue
cleaning

• Most vibrations in machines and structures are undesirable due to

increased stresses and energy losses.
 1.2. Periodic functions and Fourier Approximations
Definition:
Periodic function: is any function that repeats itself in time, i.e. any
function for which there exists a fixed time T called the period such
that f(t) = f(t+T) for all values of t.
Example: forcing function that is the sum of two sinusoids of
different frequencies
f(t)
T f(t) is a general periodic function
of period T

• Periodic input (excitation)

results in a periodic response
• It could be sinusoidal driving function at a single or multiple
frequency f (t )  A sin t or f (t )  A sin 1t  B sin 2t 16
Harmonic Motion
– This is the fundamental and simplest type of periodic
motion expressed by sinusoidal functions.
– It has a significant importance in the study of mechanical
vibrations.
– It represents mostly encountered types of motion in many
dynamic systems.
– It is also used as a fundamental model to describe complex
motions.

17
Harmonic Motion
• Representation:
2
x  xo sin(t   )  xo sin( t   )  xo sin(2 f t   )
T
where:
– xo is the maximum value of the displacement,
which is also called the amplitude, measured in
meters.
2

T
– is the circular frequency of oscillation,
measured
1 in radians per second (rad/sec).
f
T
– is also another form of frequency measured
in cycles-per-second (cps) or Hertz (Hz).
– is the phase shift given in radians. 18
• Fourier Theory: Any periodic function f(t) with period
T, may be represented by an infinite series of the
form: a0 
f f (t )    (an cos n T t  bn sin n T t )
2 n 1

Where T  2
T
2 T
a0   f (t )dt
T 0
It is twice the 2 T
average of the an   f (t ) cos nT tdt Fourier
function f(t) over T 0 Coefficients
one cycle 2 T
bn   f (t )sin nT tdt
T 0
for n 1, 2,....

19
Simplification:
• Orthogonality:
– Integral of the products of two orthogonal functions is zero.
T
0
cos nT t sin mT t dt  0

T 0 m  n
0 sin nT t sin mT t dt  T  m  n and
 2
T 0 m  n
0 cos nT t cos mT t dt  T  m  n
 2
where m & n areintegers.

20
• Symmetry
– If f(t)=f(-t):
• Symmetry about the origin (y axis)
• Called even function
• The Fourier Series contains only cos components,
i.e. bn=0

– If f(t)=-f(-t):
• Called an odd function
• The Fourier Series contains only sin components,
i.e. an=0

21
1.3. Modeling of Dynamic Systems for Vibration
– Machines could be simple or complex
• Algorithm for vibration analysis:
Vibration
Problem

Produce physical
modeling

Produce
Modify the physical
Mathematical
model in light of the
Modeling
solution

Solve the
Mathematical
Model Vibration Analysis Procedure
Step 1: Mathematical Modeling
Check the solution
with reality
Step 2: Derivation of Governing Equations
No
Yes Step 3: Solution of the Governing Equations
Stop
Step 4: Interpretation of the Results
22
Model:
 Simplified but sufficiently sophisticated to
represent the real system
 Depends on an individual perspective
 Depends on the accuracy of analysis needed

Elements of Modeling:
– Mass
– Spring
– Damper Building blocks in the development of
– Rod physical models of dynamic systems
– Beam
– Plate

23
• Physically, all elements of a mechanical system are of
continuous type and possess non-linear characteristic.
• To make the analysis simple and not to deal with the non-linear
characteristics of all the components, we need to:
– take simplified assumptions and identify the basic parts
which have relevance to the problem
– model by lumped or discretized equivalent:
Mass
Spring and With linear Characteristics
Damper
• After Physical Modeling follows Mathematical Modeling
– Define physical quantities
– Establish equation of motion PDE for Continuous Model
ODE for Discretized Models
• Then solution of equation of motion gives the motion of the
dynamic system as function of time.
24
 Vibration Analysis Procedure
Example of the modeling of a forging hammer:

25
 Discrete Truck Model for Vibration Analysis

This model consists of seven masses with

ten spring-damper-systems.

The discretization has made the whole

truck to have only ten DoF, consisted of
six vertical displacements ( y1, y2 , y3, y4, y5,
y6 ) and four rotations (φ3,φ4 ,φ5,φ7 ).

Note: The lumped elements should posses the same properties like
the continuous element, which is satisfied through the equivalence in
kinetic, potential & dissipation energies between the real system and
the mechanical model. 26
 Modelling of vibrating systems
Lumped (Rigid) Modelling Numerical Modelling

Element-based
methods
(FEM, BEM)

Statistical and Energy-

based methods
(SEA, EFA, etc.)
1.4. Characteristics of Discrete System
Components
Essential properties of a machine or part to experience vibration
are:
– Inertia:
 associated with mass moving in translation or rotation (m
or J)
 The mass or inertia element is assumed to be rigid body
 It can gain or lose kinetic energy whenever the velocity of
the body changes.
– Elasticity:
 Capability to deform and return to original form
(deformation before plastic limit)
 Symbolized by spring
 Accumulation of elastic potential energy
– Damping:
 Represents energy dissipation in system 28
In real mechanical system
we can model Inertia & elasticity are distributed
Examples
i. Distributed mass & tortional stiffness of crank shaft

Actual

c1 c2 c3 c4 c5 c6
Mechanica
l Model
k1 J k2 J k3 J k4 J k5 J k6
1 2 3 4 5

ii. Distributed mass and bending stiffness of a bridge

Actual Mechanica
l Model
m1 m2 m3 …… mn-1 mn

29
Note:
• Distributed properties are represented by equivalent
lumped masses interconnected to one another through
lumped damping and stiffness elements.
– This gives a discrete vibration model or discrete system.

• The lumped elements should posses the same

properties like the continuous element, which is
satisfied through the equivalence in kinetic, potential
& dissipation energies.

30
 Discrete System Components
• The discrete mechanical system elements are:
1. Spring
• relates force to displacement (or torque to rotation)
• Possess the property of elasticity
• Generally assumed to be mass less

Fs stiffening Spring Fs Fs Linear Spring

(∆F>> ∆x)
Softening Spring
x1 x2
Fs=k(x2-x1)
(∆F<< ∆x)
∆x=x2-x1 kt
φ Torsional Spring
Ms=kt φ
Linear Range, Slope of k,
Spring Constant or stiffness Ms

• A spring operated in the linear range is characterized by its

31
 2. Damper
• relates force to velocity
• consists of a piston fitted loosely in a cylinder
filled with viscous fluid
• represented by viscous damper or dash pot

Linear • assumed to be mass-less

Fd
Damper
Fd Fd
Slope = C
x1 x 2
Fd  C ( x2  x1 )
( x2  x1 )

• Fd is the damping force and resists an increase in

relative velocity.
Rotational • C [Ns/m] is the coefficient of viscous damping
Damper
32
 Common Uses of Dashpots
Door Stoppers
Vehicle Suspension

Bridge Suspension
Flyover Suspension
3. Mass
• Relates force to acceleration
Fm
x
Slope = m
m Fm

x
Fm= m 
x

Units and symbols for translational and rotational vibrations is

summarized as shown below.
Translational Vibration Torsional Vibration
Spring, k [N/m] Torsional Spring, kt [Nm]
Viscous damper, C [Ns/m] Torsional Viscous Damper, Ct [Nms]
Mass, m [kg] Mass moment of inertia, J [kg.m2]
Fs , F d Ms , Md
x, x, x  , ,  34
1.5. Differential equation of motion for 1st Order and
2nd Order Linear systems
Case i) System with m=0
FBD
k Fs= kx
F(t) F (t )  Cx  kx  0
F(t)
Fd  cx  Cx  kx  F (t )
c x(t)
This is a 1st order linear ODE with constant coefficients.
Case ii) Spring-Damper-Mass system
FBD
k
F(t)
Fs= kx m F(t)
m
Fd  cx
c x(t)
 F (t )  Cx kx  mx
 mx Cx  kx  F (t )
This is a 2nd order linear ODE with constant coefficients. 35
Case iii) Suspended Spring-Mass-Damper
FBD 1
F(t) Undeformed F(t)
y(t) position y(t)
xst x(t)
m
Equilibrium
position
k C Ky(t) Cy (t )
mg
my(t )  cy (t )  ky (t )  mg  F (t )
If y (t )  x(t )  xst , where xst is the static deformation
 y
(t )  x(t ) & y (t )  x(t )
But, since kxst will be cancelled by mg then
 mx cx  kx  F (t )
FBD 2 F(t)

x(t)

K(x-xst) Cx (t )
mg
36
 Simple Vibration Simulations

Too hard suspension system of a car results in throwing of the

car on uneven road, while too soft suspension system will
swing the car, which results in lost of the contact between the
wheels and the road.

37
 Example 1:
Model the following simplified structural elements as mass-
spring systems and determine the equivalent spring stiffness, k
of the spring.
a) A rod experiencing axial (longitudinal) vibration

Assumptions:
The mass of the rod is negligible as compared to that of the block
attached at the end.
The work has been done by the force F which will be accumulated in
the deformed bar as strain energy and when F is released this energy
will be converted to kinetic energy, so that the system will experience
longitudinal vibrations.
• From strength of materials, the uniform normal strain is given by:

Where: x is the longitudinal deformation,

L is the unstretched length,
A is the crossectional area and
E is the elastic modulus of the rod.
• From this equation we can get the applied force to be:

• Hence, from Hook’s law, the equivalent stiffness of the rod

modeled as a spring will be:
 b) A beam experiencing Transverse Vibration

Assumptions:
The mass of the beam is negligible as compared to that of the
block placed at a distance of ‘a’ from the left.
The work has been done by the force F which will be
accumulated in the bent beam as strain energy and when F is
released this energy will be converted to kinetic energy, so that
the system will experience lateral vibrations.
• From strength of materials, we know that the displacement due
to static load at a distance of ‘a’ from the left (at the point
where the mass is attached) is given by:

where I is the cross sectional moment of inertia about the

neutral axis.
• From this equation we can determine the static force as:

• But, from Hook’s law, since F = ky , the equivalent stiffness of

the spring will be:
 c) A shaft experiencing Torsional Oscillation

Assumptions:
The mass moment of the shaft is negligible as compared to that of
the disk placed at the end of the shaft.
The work has been done by the Torque T which will be accumulated
in the twisted shaft as strain energy and when T is released this
energy will be converted to kinetic energy, so that the system will
experience Torsional Vibrations.
• From strength of materials, we know that the angular
deformation of the shaft due to static torque T is given by:

where J is the polar moment of inertia of the shaft of length

L and G is the shear modulus of the shaft.
• From this equation we can determine the static Torque as:

• But, from Hook’s law, since T = ktθ , the equivalent

Torsional stiffness of the Torsional spring is:
 Example 2:
• Replace the combination of springs with a single spring of an
equivalent spring constant with out altering the behavior of the
system.
a) parallel combination of springs

• Here, the block is considered not to rotate but only translate by x

and hence it is true to say that all ends of the n springs are
stretched by x, equal to the displacement of the block due to the
static force F. From this we can say that:

• From which the equivalent stiffness, keq, will be given by:

b) series combination of springs

• As shown the same force will be developed in each spring

and is equal to the force, F acting on the block. However,
the change in length of each spring is dependent upon the
spring stiffness.
• That is, the displacement of the block will be equal to
the summation of all deformations of each spring as
given by:

• From which the equivalent spring is given by:

c) Model the following combination of springs by a single spring of
an equivalent stiffness attached to the given mass.

• These steps, step (i) and (ii), are reduction steps of the model. Step
(ii), shows that the two springs attached at the left and right of the
block are exerting force to the left and are deformed by same
displacement, x. Hence, the spring forces add up to give the total
• Here, these two springs are exerting force to the left and
displaced by same displacement x. Hence, the spring forces
add-up and behave as if they are in parallel, and hence the
equivalent spring and the model (step (iii)) are given by:
d) Model the flexibility of the simply supported beam and the
spring as a single spring of equivalent stiffness, keq, of the
system shown hereunder.

• The deflection of the simply supported beam due to a

unit load at x=2m is calculated by:
• For a unit static load applied at 2L/3, the equivalent stiffness of
the simply supported beam will be given by:

• Considering a series connection of the two springs as shown

hereunder, the equivalent stiffness will be given by:

Note that, since springs are arranged in series, the equivalent spring
stiffness is less than the stiffness of each springs, i.e. flexibility is
increased by arranging springs in series.
Governing equation (Equation of motion)
of SDOF systems
a) By Newton’s Second Law
b) By equivalent energy method
 Governing equation (Equation of motion) of
SDOF systems
a) By Newton’s Second Law

Equation of motion

Translation (Governing equation)

Rotation
Free-Body Diagram (FBD)

System FBD
Example 3:
Find equation of motion of the following system by using Newton’s
Second Law.

c
FBD

c
 b) By equivalent energy method
Energy balance approach of the original system and the model

Equation of motion
(Governing equation)
 Example 4:
Model the following mass-pulley and spring system to a single block
of displacement, x and spring. Determine the equivalent mass and
equivalent stiffness using the energy balance approach of the original
system and the model, and make the equation of motion.

Assuming:
- the disk rolls with out slip,
- no slip occurs at the pulley, and
Note:
If the mass of the spring is much smaller than the mass of the
block, but not negligible, a reasonable one-degree-of freedom
approximation can be made by approximating the spring’s
inertial effect.

The inertial effects of a linear spring with one end fixed and the
other end connected to a moving body can be approximated by
placing a particle whose mass is 1/3 of the mass of the spring at
the point where the spring is connected to the body.

This is valid for helical coil springs, bars that are modeled as
springs for longitudinal vibrations, and shafts acting as torsional
springs.
Example:
Find equation of motion of the following system by using Equivalent
energy method.
Ex:
Find governing equations by a) Equivalent energy b) Newton’s Second
Law by defining equivalent mass, stiffness and damping constant
Ex:
Show that the system’s equation of motion is

a) By equivalent energy method

b) By Newton method