UNBOUNDED

PAVEMENT
MATERIALS
 UNBOUNDED PAVEMENT MATERIALS
2

The choice of pavement material is largely depends on

the type and cost of natural materials locally available.
A thorough assessment of the local resources in road
making materials is essential to select the most
economical pavement.
 In selecting and using natural gravels, their inherent
variability must be taken into account.
The final choice should take into account the expected
level of future maintenance and the total cost over the
expected life of the pavement.
The use of locally available materials is encouraged,
particularly
HIGHWAY at low
II - Unbounded Pavement traffic volumes.
Materials
Unbound Pavement Materials
Aggregate
3
"Aggregate" is a term for the mineral materials such
as sand, gravel and crushed stone that are used with
a binding medium to form compound materials (such
as asphalt concrete and portland cement.
 Aggregates can either be natural or manufactured.
Natural aggregates are generally extracted from
larger rock formations through an open excavation
(quarry).
Manufactured aggregate is often the byproduct of
other manufacturing industries

HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials

 Unbound Pavement Materials
Aggregate
4
Aggregates come from rock of three geological classifications
Igneous rock. These rocks are primarily crystalline and are
formed by the cooling of molten rock material beneath the
earth’s crust (magma).
Sedimentary rocks. These rocks are formed from deposited
insoluble material (e.g., the remains of existing rock
deposited on the bottom of an ocean or lake). This material is
transformed to rock by heat and pressure. Sedimentary
rocks are layered in appearance.
Metamorphic rock. These are igneous or sedimentary rocks
that have been subjected to heat and/or pressure great
enough to change their mineral structure so as to be different
from the original rock
HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials
 Sources and Properties of Aggregate
5

HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials

Unbound Pavement Materials
Aggregate
6

Aggregate production
Aggregates are produced in a quarry or mine (see
Figure below) whose basic function is to convert in
situ rock into aggregate with specified characteristics.

Usually the rock is blasted or dug from the quarry

walls then reduced in size using a series of screens
and crushers.
Some quarries are also capable of washing the
finished aggregate.

HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials

Unbound Pavement Materials
Aggregate
7

HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials

 Sources of Aggregate
8

 Hard rocks, sand and gravels are important sources of aggregates.

 Pulverized concrete and asphalt pavements as well as recycled and waste
materials are other sources of aggregate.
 Bedrocks are classified into igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rock
according to their mode of formation.
 Sand or gravel deposits might be composed of different mineral particles
such as limestone, sandstone, and granite depending up on the original
bedrock sources of particles.
 The property of crushed aggregate produced in quarries from bedrock
depends on the type of bed rock.
 Igneous and metamorphic rocks are usually hard and form excellent
aggregates.
 Sedimentary rocks like limestone and dolomite (softer than igneous rocks)
are still used as an aggregate for most purposes. While shale (Composed of
clay grains) is very weak which disintegrate easily when exposed to weather
and is a poor aggregate material.
HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials
Unbound Pavement Materials
Test for Aggregate
9

(1) Determination of the particle size distribution

The particle size distribution shall be determined in accordance
with AASHTO T 27 Test Method
 The gradation of an aggregate is most often determined by a sieve
analysis
 In a sieve analysis, a sample of dry aggregate of known weight is
separated through a series of sieves with progressively smaller
openings.
 Once separated, the weight of particles retained on each sieve is
measured and compared to the total sample weight.
 Particle size distribution is then expressed as a percent retained by
weight on each sieve size.
 Results are usually expressed in tabular or graphical format.
HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials
Unbound Pavement Materials
Test for Aggregate
10

(2) Particle Shape and Surface Texture

 Particle shape and surface texture are important for proper
compaction, deformation resistance, HMA workability and
PCC workability.
 Relevant particle shape/texture characteristics are:
 Particle shape. Rounded particles create less particle to
particle interlock than angular particles and thus provide
better workability and easier compaction. However, in HMA
less interlock is generally a disadvantage as rounded
aggregate will continue to compact, shove and rut after
construction. Thus angular particles are desirable for HMA
(despite their poorer workability), while rounded particles are
desirable for PCC because of their better workability.
HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials
Unbound Pavement Materials
Test for Aggregate
11

(2) Particle Shape and Surface Texture

 Flat or elongated particles. These particles tend to impede
compaction or break during compaction and thus, may
decrease strength.
 Smooth-surfaced particles. These particles have a lower
surface to volume ratio than rough surfaced particles and thus
may be easier to coat with binder. However, in HMA asphalt
tends to bond more effectively with rough surfaced particles,
and in PCC rough surfaced particles provide more area to
which the cement paste can bond. Thus, rough surface
particles are desirable for both HMA and PCC.

HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials

Unbound Pavement Materials
Test for Aggregate
12

(2) Particle Shape and Surface Texture

There are several common tests used to identify and
quantify aggregate particle shape and surface texture.
Among the most popular are:
 Particle index
 Percent fractured face (or coarse aggregate angularity)
 Fine aggregate angularity

HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials

Unbound Pavement Materials
Test for Aggregate
13

(3) Toughness and Abrasion Resistance

Aggregates undergo substantial wear & tear in their life.
In general, they should be hard and tough enough to
resist crushing, degradation and disintegration from
activities such as production, stockpiling, placing,
compaction, etc
Furthermore, they must be able to adequately transmit
loads from the pavement surface to the underlying
layers.
Aggregates not adequately resistant to abrasion and
polishing will cause premature structural failure and/or
a loss of skid resistance.
HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials
Unbound Pavement Materials
Test for Aggregate
14

Los Angeles Abrasion Test

 A common test used to characterize toughness and abrasion
resistance is the Los Angeles (L.A.) abrasion test.
 For the L.A. abrasion test, the portion of an aggregate sample
retained on the 1.70 mm (No. 12) sieve is placed in a large
rotating drum that contains a shelf plate attached to the outer
wall (the Los Angeles machine ). A specified number of steel
spheres are then placed in the machine and the drum is
rotated for 500 revolutions at a speed of 30 33 RPM.
 The material is then extracted and separated into material
passing the 1.70 mm (No. 12) sieve and material retained on
the 1.70 mm (No. 12) sieve.
HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials
Unbound Pavement Materials
Test for Aggregate
15

Los Angeles Abrasion Test

 The retained material (larger particles) is then weighed and
compared to the original sample weight.
 The difference in weight is reported as a percent of the
original weight and called the "percent loss".

HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials

Unbound Pavement Materials
Test for Aggregate
16

(4) Durability and Soundness

 Aggregates must be resistant to breakdown and disintegration
from weathering.
 Durability and soundness are terms typically given to an
aggregate’s weathering resistance characteristic.
 Aggregates used in HMA are dried in the production process
and therefore should contain almost no water. Thus, for
aggregate used in HMA, freezing/thawing should not be a
significant problem.
 This is not true for aggregate used in PCC or as base
and/or subbase courses. These aggregates typically contain
some water (on the order of 0.1% to 3% usually) and are not
dried prior to use.
HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials
Unbound Pavement Materials
Test for Aggregate
17
 Soundness Tests
 The most common soundness test involves repeatedly submerging
an aggregate sample in a saturated solution of sodium or
magnesium sulfate. This process causes salt crystals to form in the
aggregate pores, which simulate ice crystal formation. The basic
procedure is as follows :
 Oven dry the sample and separate it into specific sieve sizes.

 Immerse the sample in a saturated solution of sodium or

magnesium sulfate and let it remain at a constant temprature for
18hrs.
 Remove the sample from the solution and dry to a constant weight
at 110 ± 5oC (230 ± 9oF).
 Repeat this cycle five times.

 Wash the sample to remove the salt; then dry.

HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials
Unbound Pavement Materials
Test for Aggregate
18

 Soundness Tests
 Determine the loss in weight for each specific sieve size and
compute a weighted average percent loss for the entire
sample.
 The maximum loss values typically range from 10 – 20
percent for every five cycles.

HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials

Unbound Pavement Materials
Test for Aggregate
19

(5) Determination of the Aggregate Crushing Value

British Standard 812, Part 110
(6) Resistance to abrasion of coarse aggregate by use
of the Los Angeles machine
AASHTO T 96
(7) Soundness of Aggregates
AASHTO T 104

HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials

Unbound Pavement Materials
Test for Aggregate
20

(5) Determination of the specific gravity and water

absorption
AASHTO T 85 Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse
Aggregate
AASHTO T 84 Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine
Aggregate
(6) Determination of the moisture content
The moisture content in the laboratory shall be determined in
accordance with AASHTO T 255 Method for Total Moisture
Content of Aggregate by Drying.

HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials

 Properties of Aggregate
21

(1) Determination of the particle size distribution

The particle size distribution shall be determined in accordance with:
AASHTO T 27 Test Method for Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse
Aggregates
(2) Determination of the Flakiness Index
British Standard 812, Part 105
(3) Determination of the specific gravity and water
absorption
AASHTO T 85 Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate
AASHTO T 84 Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine Aggregate
(4) Determination of the moisture content
The moisture content in the laboratory shall be determined in
accordance with AASHTO T 255 Method for Total Moisture Content
of Aggregate by Drying.
HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials
 Properties of Aggregate
22

 Tests for Aggregate

(5) Determination of the Aggregate Crushing Value
British Standard 812, Part 110
(6) Resistance to abrasion of coarse aggregate by use of the
Los Angeles machine
AASHTO T 96
(7) Soundness of Aggregates
AASHTO T 104

HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials

 Unbounded base and sub base material
23

 This chapter gives guidance on the selection of unbound

materials for use as base course, sub-base, capping and selected
subgrade layers. The main categories with a brief summary of
their characteristics are shown in Table 5-1.
 Table 5-1: Properties of Unbound Materials (ERA)

 Notes: These specifications may be modified according to site conditions, material type
and principal use. And where GB = Granular base course, GS = Granular sub-base, GC
= Granular capping layer.

HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials

 Base Course Materials
24

A wide range of materials can be used as unbound base

course including crushed quarried rock, crushed and
screened, mechanically stabilized, modified or
naturally occurring gravels.
Their suitability for use depends primarily on the
design traffic level of the pavement and climate.
However, all base course materials must have a particle
size distribution and particle shape which provide high
mechanical stability and should contain sufficient fines
(amount of material passing the 0.425 mm sieve) to
produce a dense material when compacted.
HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials
 Base Course Materials
CRUSHED STONE
25

 Graded crushed stone (GB1). This material is produced by

crushing fresh, quarried rock (GB1) and a 'crusher-run', or
alternatively the material may be separated by screening and
recombined to produce a desired particle size distribution.
 Alternate gradation limits, depending on the local conditions for
a particular project, are shown in Table 5-2.
 After crushing, the material should be angular in shape with a
Flakiness Index of less than 35%, and preferably of less than
30%.
 If the amount of fine aggregate produced during the crushing
operation is insufficient, non-plastic angular sand may be used.
 In constructing a crushed stone base course, the aim should be
to achieve maximum impermeability compatible with good
compaction and high stability under traffic.
HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials
 Base Course Materials
CRUSHED STONE
26

 Table 5-2: Grading Limits for Graded Crushed Stone Base Course
Materials (GB1)

HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials

 Base Course Materials
CRUSHED STONE
27

 These are a minimum Ten Per Cent Fines Value (TFV) (BS 812, Part
111) and limits on the maximum loss in strength following a period of
24 hours of soaking in water.
 Alternatively, requirements expressed in terms of the results of the
Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV)(BS 812, Part 110) may be used: the
ACV should preferably be less than 25 and in any case less than 29.
 Other simpler tests e.g. the Aggregate Impact Test (BS 812, Part 112)
may be used in quality control testing provided a relationship
between the results of the chosen test and the TFV has been
determined.
 Unique relationships do not exist between the results of the various
tests but good correlations can be established for individual material
types and these need to be determined locally.

HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials

 Base Course Materials
CRUSHED STONE
28

 To ensure that the materials are sufficiently durable, they should

satisfy the criteria given in Table 5-3.
 Table 5-3: Mechanical Strength Requirements for the Aggregate Fraction of Crushed
Stone Base Course Materials (GB1) as Defined by the Ten Per Cent Fines Test

 The fine fraction of a GB1 material should be non-plastic.

 The material is usually kept wet during transport and laying to
reduce the likelihood of particle segregation.
 The in situ dry density of the placed material should be a min. of
98% of the max. dry density obtained in the ASTM Test D 1557.
 The compacted thickness of layers should not exceed 200 mm.

HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials

 Base Course Materials
NATURALLY OCCURRING GRANULARMATERIALS, BOULDERS, WEATHERED ROCKS

29

Normal requirements for natural gravels and

weathered rocks (GB2, GB3).
A wide range of materials including lateritic, calcareous and
quartzitic gravels, river gravels, boulders and other
transported gravels, or granular materials resulting from the
weathering of rocks can be used successfully as base course
materials.
Table 5-4 contains three recommended particle size
distributions for suitable materials corresponding to
maximum nominal sizes of 37.5 mm, 20 mm and 10 mm.
Only the two larger sizes should be considered for traffic in
excess of 1.5 million equivalent standard axles.

HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials

 Base Course Materials
NATURALLY OCCURRING GRANULARMATERIALS, BOULDERS, WEATHERED ROCKS

30

Normal requirements for natural gravels and

weathered rocks (GB2, GB3).
To ensure that the material has maximum mechanical stability,
the particle size distribution should be approximately parallel
with the grading envelope.
To meet the requirements consistently, screening and crushing
of the larger sizes may be required.
The fraction coarser than 10 mm should consist of more than
40 per cent of particles with angular, irregular or crushed faces.
The mixing of materials from different sources may be
warranted in order to achieve the required grading and surface
finish. This may involve adding fine or coarse materials or
combinations of the two.
HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials
 Base Course Materials
NATURALLY OCCURRING GRANULARMATERIALS, BOULDERS, WEATHERED ROCKS

31

 Table 5-4: Recommended Particle Size Distributions for Mechanically Stable

Natural Gravels and Weathered Rocks for Use as Base Course Material (GB2,
GB3)

HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials

 Base Course Materials
NATURALLY OCCURRING GRANULARMATERIALS, BOULDERS, WEATHERED ROCKS

32

 All grading analyses should be done on materials that have

been compacted. This is especially important if the aggregate
fraction is susceptible to breakdown under compaction and in
service.
 For materials whose stability decreases with breakdown, an
aggregate hardness based on a minimum soaked Ten Per Cent
Fines Value of 50 KN may be specified.
 The fines of these materials should preferably be non-plastic
but should normally never exceed a PI of 6. If the PI approaches
the upper limit of 6, it is desirable that the fines content be
restricted to the lower end of the range. To ensure this, a
maximum Plasticity Modulus (PM) of 90 where:
PM = PI x (percentage passing the 0.425 mm sieve)
HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials
 Base Course Materials
NATURALLY OCCURRING GRANULARMATERIALS, BOULDERS, WEATHERED ROCKS

33

 If difficulties are encountered in meeting the plasticity criteria,

consideration should be given to modifying the material by the
addition of a low percentage of hydrated lime or cement.
 When used as a base course, the material should be compacted to a
density equal to or greater than 98 per cent of the maximum dry
density achieved in the ASTM Test Method D 1557 (Heavy
Compaction). When compacted to this density in the laboratory, the
material should have a minimum CBR of 80% after four days
immersion in water.
 In Arid and semi-arid areas, high strengths are likely to develop even
when natural gravels containing a substantial amount of plastic fines
are used. In these situations, for the lowest traffic categories the
maximum allowable PI can be increased to 12 and the minimum
soaked CBR criterion reduced to 60% at the expected field density.

HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials

 Base Course Materials
NATURALLY OCCURRING GRANULARMATERIALS, BOULDERS, WEATHERED ROCKS

34

 Materials of basic igneous origin. Materials in this group are

sometimes weathered and may release additional plastic fines during
construction or in service. Problems are likely to worsen if water enters
the pavement and this can lead to rapid and premature failure.
 The state of decomposition also affects their long-term durability when
stabilized with lime or cement. The group includes common rocks such
as basalts and dolerites.
 Normal aggregate tests are often unable to identify unsuitable materials
in this group. Even large, apparently sound particles may contain
minerals that are decomposed and potentially expansive. The release of
these minerals may lead to a consequent loss in bearing capacity.
 There are several methods of identifying unsound aggregates. These
include petro graphic analysis to detect secondary (clay) minerals and
the use of various chemical soundness tests, e.g. sodium or magnesium
sulphate (ASTM C 88).
HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials
 Base Course Materials
NATURALLY OCCURRING GRANULARMATERIALS, BOULDERS, WEATHERED ROCKS

35

 Indicative limits based on these tests include (a) a maximum

secondary mineral content of 20%, (b) a maximum loss of 12 or
20% after 5 cycles in the sodium or magnesium sulphate tests
respectively.
 It is important to subject the material to a range of tests since no
specific method can consistently identify problem materials.
 In some areas of Ethiopia, weathered basalt gravels are available in
large quantities. Results of studies to date indicate that these
materials stabilized with 3 per cent of lime and surface dressed
should provide an acceptable alternative to crushed stone base
construction for main roads in Ethiopia. A particular advantage of
this material is that it avoids the problem of clay working up into
the base, which is a frequent source of failure when using crushed
stone over active clay.
HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials
 Base Course Materials
NATURALLY OCCURRING GRANULARMATERIALS, BOULDERS, WEATHERED ROCKS

36

Materials of marginal quality.

 Naturally occurring gravels which do not normally meet the
normal specifications for base course materials have occasionally
been used successfully.
 They include lateritic, calcareous and volcanic gravels.
 In general their use should be confined to the lower traffic
categories unless local studies have shown that they have
performed successfully at higher levels.
 Laterite gravels with plasticity index in the range of 6-12 and
plasticity modulus in the range of 150-250 is recommended for
use as base course material for T3 level of traffic volume.
 The values towards higher range are valid for semi-arid and arid
areas of Ethiopia with annual rainfall less than 500 mm.
HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials
 Base Course Materials
NATURALLY OCCURRING GRANULARMATERIALS, BOULDERS, WEATHERED ROCKS

37

The calcareous gravels, which include calcretes and

marly lime stones, deserve special mention.
Typically, the plasticity requirements for these
materials, all other things being equal, can be increased
by up to 50% above the normal requirements in the
same climatic area without any detrimental effect on
the performance of otherwise mechanically stable bases.
Strict control of grading is also less important and
deviation from a continuous grading is tolerable.
Cinder gravels can also be used as a base course
material in lightly trafficked surface dressed roads.
HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials
 Sub Base Course Materials
38

 The sub-base is an important load spreading layer in the

completed pavement in that it enables
 traffic stresses to be reduced to acceptable levels in the
subgrade,
 it acts as a working platform for the construction of the
upper pavement layers and
 it acts as a separation layer between subgrade and base
course.
 Under special circumstances, it may also act as a filter or as a
drainage layer.
 In wet climatic conditions, the most stringent requirements
are dictated by the need to support construction traffic and
paving equipment.
HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials
 Sub Base Course Materials
39

In these circumstances, the sub-base material needs

to be more tightly specified.
In dry climatic conditions, in areas of good drainage,
and where the road surface remains well sealed,
unsaturated moisture conditions prevail and sub-
base specifications may be relaxed.
The selection of sub-base materials will therefore
depend on the design function of the layer and the
anticipated moisture regime, both in service and at
construction.

HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials

 Sub Base Course Materials
40

 BEARING CAPACITY: -
 A minimum CBR of 30 per cent is required at the highest anticipated
moisture content when compacted to the specified field density,
usually a minimum of 95 per cent of the maximum dry density
achieved in the ASTM Test D 1557 (Heavy Compaction).
 Under conditions of good drainage and when the water table is not
near the ground surface the field moisture content under a sealed
pavement will be equal to or less than the optimum moisture content
in the ASTM Test Method D 698 (Light Compaction). In such
conditions, the sub-base material should be tested in the laboratory in
an unsaturated state.
 Except in arid areas, if the base course allows water to drain into the
lower layers, as may occur with unsealed shoulders and under
conditions of poor surface maintenance where the base course is
pervious, saturation of the sub-base is likely.
HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials
 Sub Base Course Materials
41

 BEARING CAPACITY: -
 In these circumstances, the bearing capacity should be
determined on samples soaked in water for a period of four
days.
 The test should be conducted on samples prepared at the
density and moisture content likely to be achieved in the field.
 In order to achieve the required bearing capacity, and for
uniform support to be provided to the upper pavement, limits
on soil plasticity and particle size distribution may be required.
 Materials which meet the recommendations of Tables 5-5 and 5-
6 will usually be found to have adequate bearing capacity.

HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials

 Sub Base Course Materials
42

USE AS A CONSTRUCTION PLATFORM: -

In many circumstances the requirements of a sub-base are
governed by its ability to support construction traffic without
excessive deformation or raveling.
A high quality sub-base is therefore required where loading or
climatic conditions during construction are severe. Suitable
material should possess properties similar to those of a good
surfacing material for unpaved roads.
The material should be well graded and have a plasticity index
at the lower end of the appropriate range for an ideal unpaved
road wearing course under the prevailing climatic conditions.
These considerations form the basis of the criteria given in
Tables 5-5 and 5-6.
HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials
 Sub Base Course Materials
43

 Material meeting the requirements for severe conditions will

usually be of higher quality than the standard sub-base (GS). If
materials to these requirements are unavailable, trafficking trials
should be conducted to determine the performance of alternative
materials under typical site conditions.
 In the construction of low-volume roads, local experience is often
invaluable and a wider range of materials may often be found to
be acceptable. In Ethiopia, laterite is one of the widely available
materials and can be used as a sub-base material. Laterite
meeting the gradation requirements of Table 5-6 can be used for
traffic levels up to 3x106 ESA provided the following criteria is
satisfied:

HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials

 Sub Base Course Materials
44

 Table 5-5: Recommended Plasticity Characteristics for Granular SubBases (GS)

 Table 5-6: Typical Particle Size Distribution for Sub-Bases (GS) Which Will
Meet Strength Requirements

HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials

 Sub Base Course Materials
45

 SUB-BASE AS A FILTER OR SEPARATING LAYER

 This may be required to protect a drainage layer from blockage by a
finer material or to prevent migration of fines and the mixing of two
layers.
 The two functions are similar except that for use as a filter the
material needs to be capable of allowing drainage to take place and
therefore the amount of material passing the 0.075 mm sieve must
be restricted.
 The following criteria is used to evaluate a sub base as a separating
or filter layer:
a) The ratio D15(coarse layer) should be less than 5
D85(fine layer)
Where: D15 is the sieve size through which 15% by weight of the
material passes and D85 is the sieve size through which 85%
passes.
HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials
 Sub Base Course Materials
46

 SUB-BASE AS A FILTER OR SEPARATING LAYER

b) The ratio D50(coarse layer) should be less than 25
D50(fine layer)
For a filter to possess the required drainage characteristics
a further requirement is:
c) The ratio D15(coarse layer) should lie between 5 and 40
D15(fine layer)
These criteria may be applied to the materials at both the
base course/sub-base and the sub-base/subgrade
interfaces.

HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials

Selected Subgrade Materials & Capping Layers (GC)
47

These materials are often required to provide sufficient

cover on weak subgrades.
They are used in the lower pavement layers as a
substitute for a thick sub-base to reduce costs, and a
cost comparison should be conducted to assess their
cost effectiveness.
As an example, approximately 30 cm of “GC” material
(as described below) placed on an S1 or S2 subgrade
will allow selecting a pavement structure as for an S3
subgrade.
An additional 5 cm of “GC” material may allow
considering an S4 subgrade class.
HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials
Selected Subgrade Materials & Capping Layers (GC)
48

The requirements are less strict than for sub-bases.

A minimum CBR of 15 per cent is specified at the
highest anticipated moisture content measured on
samples compacted in the laboratory at the specified
field density.
This density is specified as a minimum of 95 % of the
maximum dry density in the ASTM Test D1557 (Heavy
Compaction).
In estimating the likely soil moisture conditions, the
designer should take into account the functions of the
overlying sub-base layer and its expected moisture
condition and the moisture conditions in the subgrade.
HIGHWAY II - Unbounded Pavement Materials
 Gravel Surfaced Roads
49

The selection of materials which show the least change

in bearing capacity from dry to wet is also beneficial.
Gravel road pavements are generally utilized for roads
where design traffic flow AADT is less than 200.
ALL-WEATHER ACCESS: - An essential consideration
in design of gravel roads is to ensure all-weather access.
This requirement places particular emphasis on the need
for sufficient bearing capacity of the pavement structure
and provision of drainage and sufficient earthworks in
flood or problem soil areas (e.g. black cotton).

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SURFACE PERFORMANCE: - The performance of the

gravel surface mainly depends on material quality, the
location of the road, and the volume of traffic using the
road.
Gravel roads passing through populated areas in
particular require materials that do not generate
excessive dust in dry weather. Steep gradients place
particular demands on gravel course materials, which
must not become slippery in wet weather or erode easily.
Gravel loss rates of about 25-30mm thickness a year per
100 vehicles per day is expected, depending on rainfall
and materials properties.
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 MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Soils used for improved subgrade layers shall be non-expansive,
non-dispersive and free from any deleterious matter.
 They shall comply with the requirements shown in Table 5-7.

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PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF GRAVEL

WEARING COURSE
The materials for gravel wearing course should
satisfy the following requirement:
 They should have sufficient cohesion to prevent raveling and
corrugating (especially in dry conditions)
 The amount of fines (particularly plastic fines) should be
limited to avoid a slippery surface under wet conditions.
Excessive oversize material in the gravel wearing
course affects the riding quality in service and makes
effective shaping of the surface difficult at the time of
maintenance.
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Selected material shall consist of hard durable angular

particles of fragments of stone or gravel.
The material shall be free from vegetable matter and lumps or
balls of clay.
Type 1
 The grading of the gravel after placing and compaction shall
be a smooth curve within and approximately parallel to the
envelopes detailed in Table 5-8.
 The material shall have a percentage of wear of not more than
50 at 500 revolutions, as determined by AASHTO T96.
 The material shall be compacted to a minimum in-situ density
of 95% of the maximum dry density determined in accordance
with the requirements of AASHTO T 180.
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Type 1
 The material shall be compacted to a minimum in-situ
density of 95% of the maximum dry density determined in
accordance with the requirements of AASHTO T 180.
 The plasticity index should be not greater than 15 and not
less than 8 for wet climatic zones and should be not
greater than 20 and not less than 10 for dry climatic zones.
 The linear Shrinkage should be in a range of 3-10%.

 Note that the above gradation and plasticity requirements

are only to be used with angular particles and that
crushing and screening are likely to be required in many
instances for this purpose.
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 Type 2 & 3
 These materials may be more rounded particles fulfilling:
 The Plasticity Index lies in a range of 5-12% in wet areas, and in
any case less than 16% in other areas
 Use of more rounded particles may allow the use of river gravel.
Subjected to trials to verify whether crushing occurs under
traffic or whether crushing should be considered prior to use, a
minimum percentage by weight of particles with at least one
fractured face of 40% may be considered.
 Except for very low traffic, the CBR should be in excess of 20
after 4 days of soaking at 95% of maximum dry density under
Heavy Compaction.
 For very low traffic, the requirement may be relaxed to a CBR of
15.
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 Type 4
 This material gradation allows for larger size material and
corresponds to the gradation of a base course material.
 The use of this gradation of materials is subject to the local
experience and shall be used with PIs in a range of 10-20.
 Type 5 & 6
 These materials gradations are recommended for smaller
size particles.
 They may be used if sanctioned by experience with
plasticity characteristics as for material Type 1.

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 Type 1 gravel wearing course is one of the best material

alternatives which shall be used on all roads which have
AADTdesign greater than 50.
 Type 1 material shall also be used for all routine and
periodic maintenance activities for both major and minor
gravel roads.
 Type 1 or Type 4 gravel wearing course material may be
used on new construction of roads having AADTdesign less
than 50.

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 Table 5-8 Gradation requirements for gravel wearing course (ERA)

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