UNIT I

DIFFERENT TYPES OF CONTROLLERS OF

CONTROL SYSTEM
 Syllabus
• Block diagrams for control systems
• Open loop and closed loop feedback control
• Comparison of closed and open loop,
• Feed forward control and adaptive controls.
• Regulator and servo mechanism.
• Proportional plus integral plus derivative controls-
Use of various control modes.
 Control System
•A control system is an
interconnection of components
forming a system configuration that
will provide a desired system
response.
• A control system involves the use of
various components, such as
sensors, controllers, actuators, and
feedback mechanisms, to
manipulate the behavior of a
system and maintain it within
specified performance criteria.
• The goal of a control system is to
achieve stability, accuracy, and
efficiency in controlling processes.
 Open-Loop Control: Closed-Loop Control:
• In an open-loop control system, • In a closed-loop control system, the output is
control action is based solely on used to modify the control action, resulting in
the input without considering better accuracy and stability
the system's output. It lacks
feedback.

• Here, an input is applied to a

controller and it produces an • The error detector produces an error signal,
actuating signal or controlling which is the difference between the input and
signal. This signal is given as an the feedback signal. This feedback signal is
input to a plant or process obtained from the block (feedback elements) by
which is to be controlled. So, considering the output of the overall system as
the plant produces an output, an input to this block. Instead of the direct
which is controlled. input, the error signal is applied as an input to a
 Feedback
• In a control system, the process of sampling and returning the output
(or a part of output) to the input end of the system is known as feedback.
• The feedback is used to improve the operating performance to obtain the
desired output from a control system.
• The feedback signal may be a voltage or a current depending on the
operation of the feedback sampling system.
• It must remember that the feedback is a unidirectional process, i.e. the
sampled feedback signal always flows from output to input side.
• The use of feedback in a system makes it a closed loop control system.
• The feedback used in the control systems are majorly classified into two
types namely, 
 Positive Feedback 
 Negative Feedback
 Positive Feedback Negative Feedback
The type of feedback in a control system • The type of feedback in a control
which samples the output signal and fed system in which the feedback signal
it to the input in phase with the applied and the reference input signal are out
input signal us called positive feedback. of phase is called a negative feedback.
In simple words, a feedback in which In simple words, when the reference
the reference input signal and the input signal and the feedback signal
feedback signal are added together is are subtracted at the input of the
called a positive feedback. The positive system, then the feedback is known
feedback is also called a regenerative as negative feedback. The negative
feedback feedback is also known as
degenerative feedback.
 Feedback Control System
A type of control system in which the
corrective action is taken after the occurrence
of disturbance in the output, it is called a
feedback control system. The feedback
control system is a type of closed loop control
system in which a feedback signal is used to
regulate the behavior
In simple words, a feedback control system is
one in which the output of the system is
sampled and fed back to the input side so that
the system can produce the desired output.
Feedback control systems are widely used
industrial automation and process control
applications
The system has five components:

• Input (known as set value)

• Output (known as process
variable)
• Process being controlled
• Sensing devices
• Actuating / control devices
Let us understand the feedback control system by a simple air
conditioning system. In an air conditioning system, the above
parameters can be defined as:

• Input is temperature set point set by the remote controller

• Output is temperature
• Process being controlled is temperature in the room
• Sensing device is the temperature sensor
• Control device is the AC
• In the air conditioning system, say the temperature in the AC is set at 28°C.
But when we start the AC, at that time the temperature of the room is high.
This temperature is measured by a temperature sensor.
• Let us assume it to be 34°C. Now, based on this feedback signal, the controller
inside will start the compressor. Then the controller will try to bring the
temperature lower till it reaches the set point.
• By this time, the sensor will continuously give its feedback to the controller. If
the current temperature reaches the set point, the system will turn off.
• Based upon the turning off condition, there can be two cases- temperature may
increase or the temperature may continue to decrease.
• In the first case, where the temperature is found to be increasing, the control
system would turn on and bring the temperature down.
• In the second case, where the temperature is decreasing, the control system
will not take any action until the temperature increases again.
• The calculation is based on two main factors. They are required value
and current value. The difference between these two values is called
error.

• Error= Required Value – Current Value

• Based upon this error, the controller will decide how to manipulate
the controlling device would try to bring down the error to zero after
a certain stage. The feedback system works on this principle. It works
on the real-time calculation.
 Feed Forward Control
A feed forward control system is a type of control
system in which the corrective action is taken
before the occurrence of disturbances in the
output of the system
In other words, the control system which can
predict variations in the input signals in advance
and can adjust the system output based on the
these predictions is referred to as a feed forward
control system.
This type of control system is mainly used where
the relationship between the input and output of
the system is either known or predictable. One of
the important features of the feed forward
control systems is that they respond quickly to
variations in the input signal. A heating system is
a typical example of a feed forward control
 Adaptive Controls
• Adaptive control refers to a control
method that is used by a controller
that must adapt to a controlled
system with varying or uncertain
parameters.
• An adaptive control system, by
construction, is non-linear since the
expression of the control is a
complex function of measured
signals and time-varying gains.
• Adaptive control detects the
changes in the functioning of the
process and regulates the controlling
parameters automatically to
compensate for the altering
conditions of the process and, in
 Need For Adaptive Control

The main reason for using adaptive control is

that most processes are nonlinear.
The conventional controller is only able to
maintain control loops that are designed to
maintain the control variable at a set point, but
once the process starts to operate beyond such
variables, the changes in the functionality can
be carried out by adaptive control.
A change in the nature of inputs or changes in
transfer function due to variations in
parameters or coefficients can cause the
conventional controller to cease working
efficiently, justifying the need for adaptive
control.
Indirect Adaptive Control Direct Adaptive Control
 Regulator
A regulator is a control system
component that aims to maintain a
desired state or setpoint by
adjusting the control inputs to
counteract disturbances and
changes in the system. Regulators
are commonly used in applications
where the goal is to keep a process
or system at a specific target value.
Regulators can be designed to control anything from Application
gases or fluids, to light or electricity. Speed can be
regulated by electronic, mechanical, or electro-
mechanical means. Such instances include;
• Electronic regulators as used in modern railway sets
where the voltage is raised or lowered to control the
speed of the engine
• Mechanical systems such as valves as used in fluid
control systems. Purely mechanical pre-automotive
systems included such designs as the Watt
centrifugal governor whereas modern systems may
have electronic fluid speed sensing components
directing solenoids to set the valve to the desired
rate.
• Complex electro-mechanical speed control systems
used to maintain speeds in modern cars (cruise
control) - often including hydraulic components,
• An aircraft engine's constant speed unit changes the
propeller pitch to maintain engine speed.
 Servo Mechanism
A servomechanism, often referred to as a servo
system, is a control system component designed to
track and follow a reference input signal accurately.
Servo systems are commonly used in applications
where precise positioning, speed control, or
trajectory tracking is required.
In control engineering, a servomechanism, usually
shortened to ’servo’, is an automatic device that
uses error-sensing negative feedback to correct the
action of a mechanism.
In displacement-controlled applications, it usually
includes a built- in encoder or other position
feedback mechanism to ensure the output is
achieving the desired effect.
 • A servo (servomechanism) is an electromagnetic device that converts
Working Principle electricity into precise controlled motion by use of negative feedback
mechanisms.
• Servos can be used to generate linear or circular motion, depending
on their type. The makeup of a typical servo includes a DC motor, a
gear train, a potentiometer, an integrated circuit (IC) and an output
shaft. The desired servo position is input and comes in as a coded
signal to the IC. The IC directs the motor to go, driving the motor’s
energy through gears that set the speed and desired direction of
movement until the signal from the potentiometer provides feedback
that the desire position is reached and the IC stops the motor.
• The potentiometer makes controlled motion possible by relaying the
current position while allowing for correction from outside forces
acting on control surfaces: Once the surface is moved the
potentiometer provides the signal of position and the IC signals the
necessary motor movement until the correct position is regained.
• A combination of servos and multi-geared electric motors can be
organized together to perform more complex tasks in various types
of systems including robots, vehicles, manufacturing and wireless
sensor and actuator network (WSANs).
Uses of servomechanism 
• Positioning servomechanisms were first used in military fire and marine
navigation equipment. 
• It is also used in automatic machine tools, satellite-tracking antennas, remote
control airplanes, automatic navigation system on boats and planes. 
• Many autofocus camera also use a servomechanism to accurately move the lens,
and thus adjust the focus.
Advantages of Servo control system 
Highest torque  Higher speed  Control speed  Speed is proportional to the
applied voltage
Disadvantages of Servo control system 
More complex  High cost for feedback use  Maintenance difficult  Tuning is
required
 What is a Controller?
In control systems, a controller is a mechanism that seeks to minimize the
difference between the actual value of a system (i.e. the process variable)
and the desired value of the system (i.e. the setpoint).
Controllers are a fundamental part of control engineering and used in all
complex control systems.
The above controller consists of an error detector and amplifier. The
diagram shown above contains a measuring element which is a device that
converts the output variable to another variable such as displacement,
pressure or electrical signals which can be used for comparing the output to
the reference input signal. The reference input (setpoint) of a controller can
be converted to reference input of the same units as a feedback signal from
the measuring element.
The important uses of the controllers include:

• Controllers improve the steady-state accuracy by decreasing the

steady state error.
• As the steady-state accuracy improves, the stability also improves.
• Controllers also help in reducing the unwanted offsets produced by
the system.
• Controllers can control the maximum overshoot of the system.
• Controllers can help in reducing the noise signals produced by the
system.
• Controllers can help to speed up the slow response of an overdamped
system.
In the continuous controller theory, there are three basic
modes on which the whole control action takes place,
which are:

• Proportional controllers.
• Integral controllers.
• Derivative controllers.
We use the combination of these modes to control our
system such that the process variable is equal to the
setpoint (or as close as we can get it).
These three types of controllers can be combined into new
controllers

• Proportional and integral controllers (PI Controller)

• Proportional and derivative controllers (PD Controller)
• Proportional integral derivative control (PID Controller)
 Proportional controller
• A proportional controller or commonly called a P controller gives the output which is
proportional to the input to the controller. A multiplication factor is multiplied by the
input given to the Proportional controller.
• The multiplication factor is called the Proportional Gain Factor (KP)of the proportional
controller.
• The more the value of the proportional gain factor, the faster is the response of the
control system.
• On the other hand, the lesser value of the proportional gain factor leads slower
response of the control system.
• The control system must be as fast as possible to have tighter process control. But the
only problem we face by increasing the proportional gain factor (KP) is that the
overshoots and undershoots in the system increase.
• Also, by decreasing the proportional gain factor (KP), the output of the control system
becomes slow which is not acceptable for many systems.
• Mathematically, a Proportional controller is defined by:
• Here, the Bias signal is a constant term that we add to the output of the
proportional controller.
• The reason for using Bias is very simple. As discussed, the output of the
proportional controller is proportional to the input of the proportional
controller. Assume that we need to control the level of a tank by controlling
a control valve by a proportional controller. The proportional controller
issues a command to the control valve as per the error signal. The error
signal is the difference between the set point value and the actual value.
• Suppose the tank level set point is 70%. The control valve gets a command
from the controller and closes to till the tank achieves a 70 % level. The
error is zero when the actual level of the tank is equal to the set point.
Therefore, in this condition, the output of the proportional controller
becomes zero.
• Now, if again the tank level increases or decreases then the proportional
controller will not give a command to the control valve to maintain the
level. To mitigate this problem we use a bias. So, when the input of the
proportional controller goes to 0, at that time this Bias will be giving
some command to the proportional controller.
• The proportional controller functions as an On-Off controller when the
value of proportional gain factor (KP) value is very high.
• One more disadvantage of the Proportional Controller is that this
controller produces a steady-state error. The offset is a special term used
for this. In other words, we can say that the proportional controller
causes a constant error between the input and output signal. The
Proportional Controller cannot eliminate this error.
 Integral Controller
• The proportional controller takes into consideration the value
of the error at the time of output calculation. This produces a
steady-state error or says offset in the system.
• The Integral Controller takes into consideration the history of
the error or says the time duration for which the error has
persisted.
• The integral controller keeps adjusting (i.e. increasing or
decreasing the output depending on the type of system.) till
the sum of errors becomes 0.
• Mathematically, an Integral controller is defined by:

• For an integral controller, very small error values can also lead to a large
amount of outputs as an integration of the error for the whole time is being
used. The integral controller produces output and adds to the output of the
proportional controller’s output over a period of time to eliminate the
steady-state error.
• Combining the Proportional and Integral controllers gives a good output. The
system also becomes stable up to an extent.
 Derivative Controller
• Both the above controllers discussed work only seeing the
present and the past. The Derivative controller predicts the
future behavior of the error. The output of the derivative
controller changes with respect to the rate of the change of
the error with respect to the time. A derivative controller is
only used when the processor variable starts oscillating or
starts changing at a very high rate of speed.
• The derivative controller helps in improving the system’s
response and thereby decreasing the settling time of the
system’s response. The derivative gain is directly proportional
to the speed of the system. This means that the increase in the
derivative gain of the derivative controller will increase the
response time of the system.
Mathematically, the Derivative controller is defined by:

A derivative controller cannot be used alone. This type of controller is

generally used with a Proportional controller and an Integral controller as a
PID controller or a Proportional controller as a PD controller. The derivative
controller is used to decrease the lag in the control system’s output.
 What is PID controller?
• PID controller makes use of
Proportional, Integral, and
Derivative controllers. All three
controllers’ response is merged to
get an output which eliminates
the disadvantages of the
individual single controller.
• The principle of operation behind
the PID controller is that the
proportional, integral, and
derivative terms need to be
individually adjusted or “tuned”.
Based on the difference between these values, the correction factor
is calculated and applied to the input. The three steps are:
• Proportional adjustment includes the correction of settings
proportional to the difference between the set point and the
output. Therefore, when the difference approaches zero, the
target value is never reached and the correction is applied.
• Integral Tuning attempts to correct this by effectively
accumulating error results from the “P” action and increasing the
correction factor. However, an “I” will try to eliminate cumulative
error instead of stopping output when the target is reached,
resulting in an overshoot.
• Derivative Tuning attempts to minimize this overshoot by slowing
down the correction factor applied as it approaches the target.
• The purpose of the PID controller is to force feedback that
matches the set point given to the system. PID controllers are the
best controllers used in systems that have a relatively small mass
and respond quickly to changes in energy input to the process.
• PID controllers are mainly recommended for systems where the
load changes are observed frequently and the controller needs to
automatically compensate for frequent changes in set point.
• There are various types of PID controllers. Some PID controllers
are separate physical units like a kind of stand-alone system.
While other PID controllers are available in the systems like PLC or
DCS. The PID controllers which are available in markets have
various functions which can be configured using the buttons given
on the controller.
• Various functions can be set and also the values of the PID can be
easily set. Some PID controllers even have relays for use in critical
systems. Generally, temperature control is done using these
external PID controllers.
• The input from the primary sensor is directly wired to the PID
controller. Upon receiving input from the primary sensor and a set
point in the controller, the PID controller generates an output. This
output can directly be used to control any final control element.
• For PID controllers in the system like PLC or DCS, inbuilt function
blocks are available. The only access to the program for that PID
block is necessary.
 Applications of PID Control
• Temperature Control: PID controllers are commonly used in
temperature control systems to maintain a desired temperature in
ovens, furnaces, and HVAC systems.
• Motor Speed Control: PID control is used to regulate the speed of
motors, ensuring precise control in applications like conveyor belts
and robotic arms.
• Process Control: In industries like chemical and manufacturing, PID
controllers are employed to regulate variables like pressure, flow rate,
and pH levels.
• Quadcopter Stabilization: PID controllers are used in quadcopters and
drones to stabilize their orientation and maintain steady flight.