CELLS

Unit 1
 INTRODUCTION TO CELLS

The Cell theory states that:

• All living organisms are made of cells
• The cell is the structural and functional unit of all living organisms
• All cells come from existing cells
Because cells are very small, they need to be viewed under a microscope.
Microscopes have existed since the 16th century and have improved over
the years, allowing us to see more and more details
MICROSCOPES
 Comparison of the light and electron microscope

The electron microscope undoubtedly gives a superior image in terms of

magnification and resolution, however there are advantages to the light microscope
MICROSCOPIC SIZES

1cm =10 mm
1mm= 1000 micro meters
1 micrometer = 1000 nanometer
(nm)

Most light microscopes used in

schools give a magnification of up
to x400, so mitochondria would
not be visible.

The electron microscope has a

higher magnification, (and
resolution), so smaller particles
can be seen.

Resolution is the ability to

distinguish between two points,
which lea
ds to the clarity of an image
 MEASURING MICROSCOPIC
SPECIMENS

The eyepiece of some microscopes is divided into small units – this is the eyepiece graticule.
These are not real measurements and change as the objective lens and therefore the magnification change,
The graticule units must therefore be calibrated at different magnifications by using a stage micrometer, which is actually
a real ruler (1mm) so is microscopic.
Once you have measured a specimen using the graticule, you will find the real measurement by using the graticule
conversion table for the objective lens you have used.
PROKARYOTIC CELLS

0.5 -5 micro meters

PROKARYOTIC CELL DRAWING
MICROGRAPHS PLANT CELLS

10 -100 micro meters

PLANT CELL
TYPES OF PLANT CELLS
MICROGRAPHS –ANIMAL CELLS

10-30 micro
meters
EUKARYOTIC CELLS – ANIMAL CELL
TYPES OF ANIMAL CELLS
EUKARYOTIC CELL DRAWING
 COMPARISON OF PLANT AND ANIMAL
CELLS

Animal cells have Plant cells have no

centrioles and store centrioles and store
glycogen granules starch grains
PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES COMPARED
 CELL MEMBRANE, CELL WALL, CYTOPLASM

CELLULOSE

• Cytosol is the fluid interior of the cell, which along with the organelles, is called the cytoplasm. It is where most
chemical reactions take place.
• Cell membrane – is made of a bi-layer of phospholipids with proteins in a mosaic pattern – it is selectively permeable
and controls what enters and leaves the cell
• Cell Wall – found only in plant cells, its made of cellulose and is fully permeable but gives the cell shape and support
THE NUCLEUS

The nucleus is the largest organelle.

It controls the activities of the cell as it houses
the DNA which carries the instructions for
making proteins including enzymes.

Nuclear pores are openings, through which RNA

and ribosome sub-units can leave the nucleus
and enter the cytoplasm.

The nucleolus is a darkly staining area within

the nucleus where ribosomes are made.
Nuclei may have several nucleoli

The size of a nucleus is approximately 6 micro

meters
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM AND GOLGI
APPARATUS

• RER is continuous with the nuclear

membrane and forms flattened channels .
Dots on the surface are ribosomes, so the
RER is the site of protein synthesis

• SER is made up of a set of tube like

channels with no ribosomes. The SER is
the site of lipid synthesis.

• Golgi Body is made up of flattened fluid

filled sacs. Lipids and proteins are passed
to it from the RER and SER and they are
modified and packaged in the Golgi, from
which vesicles pinch off, so these
substances can be exported from the cell
(exocytosis)
 RIBOSOMES AND CENTRIOLES

Ribosomes exist in two sub units and are the

site of protein manufacture. Centrioles exist in pairs in most animal cells. They
They are found attached to the RER or within are found in a region called the centrosome which is
the cytosol. the micro-tubule organizing centre (MTOC).
Eukaryotes have 80S while prokaryotes have It is felt they have a role in spindle formation for cell
70s ribosomes. division.
 VACUOLE

Plant cells have a large permanent vacuole which occupies a large part of the cell.
Because waste material can be stored in a plant vacuole, plant cells usually lack lysosomes.
Fluid in the vacuole provide turgor pressure which helps to support the plant.
The membrane surrounding the vacuole is the tonoplast.
 VESICLES

VESICLE LYSOSOME

Vesicles are membrane bound sacs formed from the Golgi Body.
Lysosomes are vesicles which contain enzymes to break down old cell parts and other substances
 CHLOROPLAST

The chloroplast is the site of photosynthesis.

The light-dependent stage takes place in the thylakoids where the chlorophyll is located.
The light-independent stage takes place in the stroma, which is the fluid part inside.
Starch grains are also stored in the chloroplasts.
Note the presence of DNA, ribosomes and a double membrane, as well as the size of the chloroplast
Size 4-10 micro meters
MITOCHONDRION

The mitochondrion is the site of aerobic respiration.

It has a double membrane with the inner membrane
having infoldings called cristae.

The inner membrane, inter-membrane space and the

matrix are all important in cellular respiration.
Note the presence also of ribosomes and DNA.
Mitochondrial DNA is passed directly from mothers
to children.
Can you explain why?

Average size 1-2 micro meters

 THE ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY

This theory states that mitochondria and chloroplasts were once prokaryotic organisms which entered
eukaryotic cells, developing a mutualistic relationship and becoming a part of the cell, as organelles. The
prokaryotes got nutrients, materials and protection, while the mitochondria carried out aerobic respiration,
providing energy, and the chloroplasts were able to capture solar energy and make food,

Evidence for the Endosymbiont theory:

• The double membrane –both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have only one membrane, but it is
thought that the prokaryote entered the eukaryote, wrapping itself in its membrane (endocytosis), so the
outer membrane of each derives from the eukaryotic cell

• DNA –only cells have DNA, as it is needed to carry instructions for making proteins.

• Ribosomes –the organelles for making proteins, which means they are able to make their own proteins,
like any cell.

• Size – they are large organelles, the size and shape of some prokaryotes
MECHANISM OF ENDOSYMBIOSIS
 ORGANIZATION OF CELLS

In multicellular Eukaryotes, cells become specialized for carrying out specific functions. this
makes the organism more efficient – like any large organization, everybody does not do all tasks,
nor are they randomly scattered around the office or factory.

• Tissues are formed from similar cells that are grouped together, to perform a particular function.
Tissues may have one or more types of cells.

• Organs are formed from at least two tissues which work together as a functional unit

• Organ Systems comprise of several organs and tissues which work together to perform a major
function
CELLULAR ORGANIZATION ANIMALS
 CELLULAR ORGANIZATION IN PLANTS

The three main organs in plants are

Roots, stems and leaves
PLANT ORGANS
 M IC R O G R A P H
T. S .
D IC O T Y L E D E N O U S
ROOT
MICROGRAPH
TS DICOT STEM