EF 100: PRINCIPLES OF

EDUCATION

MODULE 7: SCIENCE AND TECHLOGY

DR. MANASE JSEPH
 Science
• Science is the pursuit and application of knowledge
and understanding of the natural and social world
following a systematic methodology based on
evidence.
• Science is here understood as being characterized
by two aspects: (1) as a corpus of conceptual and
experimental methods that allow the investigation
of objects pertaining to the natural or social worlds;
and (2) as the body of knowledge derived from
these investigations.
 Technology
• Technology is defined as the set of tools and
machinery as well as the knowledge
pertaining to their functioning and use.
• Technology is concerned with finding
workable solutions to practical problems.
Principle characteristics of science
• There are key tenets that are definitive of
science. What follows is a guide on some of
the key features of science
1. Science asks questions about the natural world

• Science studies the natural world. This

includes the components of the physical
universe around us like atoms, plants,
ecosystems, people, societies and galaxies, as
well as the natural forces at work on those
things.
 Cont
• In contrast, science cannot study supernatural
forces and explanations.
• Thus questions like, What is the meaning of
life? and Does the soul exist? generally expect
answers that are outside of the natural world
—and hence, outside of science.
 2. Science works with testable ideas (hypotheses)

• Only testable ideas are within the purview of

Science.
• Scientific hypotheses are empirically testable.
• Scientific hypotheses make predictions that
can be disconfirmed by evidence and hence
• Falsifiable (hypotheses capable of being
tested and refuted/supported).
 Falsifiability
• Falsifiability or refutability of a statement,
hypothesis or theory is the inherent possibility
that it can be proven false.
• It is sometimes synonymous with testability
• Falsifiability gained attention by way of the
philosopher of science Karl Popper.
Demarcating science from pseudoscience

• For Popper falsifiability distinguishes scientific

from unscientific thus makes falsifiability a
demarcation criterion.
• What is unfalsifiable is classified as unscientific
and the practice of declaring an unfalsifiable
theory to be scientifically true is
pseudoscience.
 Cont
• e.g. astrology, whilst generating a body of
knowledge empirically, is not considered a
genuine science because it is not falsifiable.
 3. Empiricism (science relies on empirical evidence)

• Scientific ideas are sustained by evidence and

cannot be propped up if the evidence does
not support them.
• Ultimately, scientific ideas must not only be
testable, but must actually be tested—
preferably with many different lines of
evidence by many different people.
 Cont
• This characteristic is at the heart of all science.
Scientists actively seek evidence to test their
ideas—even if the test is difficult and means,
for example, spending years working on a
single experiment.
4. Science is systematic/organised
• Scientific arguments are logical and can be
followed from hypotheses to experimental
findings, and through to conclusions.
• Scientific truth is arrived at by following
systematic procedures from observation
through theory update.
 5. Science is embedded in the scientific
community

• The progress of science depends on

interactions within the scientific community—
that is, the community of people and
organizations that generate scientific ideas,
test those ideas, publish scientific journals,
organize conferences, train scientists,
distribute research funds, etc.
 Cont
• This scientific community provides the
cumulative knowledge base that allows
science to build on itself.
• It is also responsible for the further testing
and scrutiny of ideas and for performing
checks and balances on the work of
community members.
 6. Scientific ideas lead to ongoing research

• Science is an ongoing endeavor.

• So long as there are unexplored and
unexplained parts of the natural world,
science will continue to investigate them.
 Norms/ethos of science
• These are core values that are held to be
binding amongst scientists.
• Developed by the sociologist Robert K. Merton
in 1942.
• As a sociologist, Merton was interested in
understanding science as a social group.
 Communism
• Communism implies that established scientific
knowledge should be the common property of
the whole scientific community.
• It is the view that scientific knowledge is a
resource to be shared by the whole tribe of
science, regardless of which individual
scientists produced which particular bits of
knowledge.
 Universalism
• Universalism refers to the application of pre-
established impersonal criteria in judging the
validity of knowledge claims.
• To scientists, the norm entails staying detached and
analysing all data in an objective way which
enables the creation of universal or objective
knowledge.
• Truth claims are thus related to objective data and
transcend race, class, political and/or religious
barriers.
 Disinterestedness
• Scientific claims should not be put forth solely
to further one’s interests or advance one’s
own agenda.
• Disinterestedness carries with it the
expectation that scientists should have no
emotional or financial attachments to their
work.
 Cont
• Merton assigned high moral standards of
personal integrity to scientists who, he
argued, were motivated and rewarded
through recognition of their achievements
rather than monetary gain
 Organised skepticism

• Scientific claims should be evaluated by

suspending judgment and scrutinizing claims
in terms of empirical and logical
considerations alone.
• Organised skepticism demands remaining
skeptical about the results of research,
including the potential shortcomings of one’s
own work, until all the facts are established.
 Cont
• Everyone in the tribe of science can advance
knowledge claims, but every such claim that is
advanced is scrutinized or tested to see if it
really holds up.
• Organised skepticism ensures that
conventional wisdom is continually challenged
in any scientific discipline.
 Scientist’s code of conduct
• This comprises what a person ought to do to
behave scientifically.
• A scientist is expected to behave in the
following manner;
 1) Paying attention to what other people
have already done.
• Scientific knowledge is built cumulatively.
• One needs to know what other people
(previous scientists) have already discovered
before s/he ventures into her/his own
discovery.
• This means that scientists study their fields
extensively to understand the current state of
knowledge.
 2) Testing one’s ideas
• A scientist should always strive to describe
and perform the tests to check the accuracy of
their ideas.
 3) Assimilating the evidence.
• Since all of science must ultimately rely on
evidence, a scientist is not free to ignore
evidence even when such evidence
contradicts his or her idea.
4) Communicating one’s ideas and tests to
others openly .
• A scientist should communicate his/her ideas
to others so that other scientists build upon
those ideas, double-check the work, or devise
new ways to test the ideas.
 5) Acting with scientific integrity.
• A scientist should maintain high standards of
honesty, integrity, and objectivity.
• Hiding evidence, selectively reporting
evidence, and faking data undermine science.
• Ultimately, lack of scientific integrity may lead
to construction of inaccurate knowledge
about the natural world.
 Science, technology and society
• We are living in an era that is dominated and driven by
ideas and products from science and technology.
• The workplace and public sphere is increasing dependent
on new and already established technologies.
• Under such circumstances, knowledge and skills in science
and technology are crucial for our decisions and actions in
all realms of life.
• Our modern societies, therefore, need people with
qualifications in science and technology both at the top
level and general public that would shape the kind of
future we desire.
Despite the growing need for scientists ...

• There is falling enrolment of students to science

and technology studies. There is lack of interest in
science which is manifested at school level when
curricular or subject choices are made.
• Similarly, there is a growing gender gap in choices
of science and technology subjects in schools. The
number of female students who develop interest in
science studies ha either remained stagnant or
decreased sharply as compared to the number of
male students.
 Implications for education sector
and labour market
• Industrial leaders are worried about the
recruitment of qualified workforce
• Universities are worried of recruitment of new
researchers
• Educational institutions are worried about lack of
qualified teachers of science and technology
subjects.
• Nations are worried that in future there would be a
pressing demand for scientists that may be difficult
to meet.
 Why disenchantment with science and
technology?

• It is important to jot down some underlying

causes of disinterestedness in science and
technology studies especially among the
young people.
• Here are some reasons.
 Outdated curriculum
• The curriculum is perceived by many students
as lacking relevance. Its often described as too
authoritarian and theoretical.
• It is overcrowded with unfamiliar concepts
and laws that students find difficult to
associate with reality.
• Also science curriculum often lacks cultural,
social and historical dimension.
 Lack of qualified teachers
• In many countries, those who choose to
become science teachers are often those who
either did poorly in science subjects
examinations, or did not take science subjects
or did not like science subjects themselves.
• Also teacher preparation programmes for
early years are often poor hence teachers
graduate with low qualifications.
Inadequate resource allocation for financing Science and technology activities

• Funds allocated to develop and promote

science programmes by governments/states
are often minimal such that they are
inadequately disseminated.
 Anti- and quasi-scientific trends and
alternatives
• There is an upsurge of ‘alternative’ beliefs in
metaphysical, spiritual and supernatural.
Some of these beliefs include but are not
limited to beliefs in astrology, several forms of
healing e.t.c. it is argued that many of these
beliefs reject scientific rationality leading to
increasing disinterestedness in science.
 The new role models (not from the field of
Science and technology?)
• In the past, scientists were treated as heroes and acted
as role models and inspiration to the young generation.
• Today, due to influence of media, the new role models
have become footballers and pop artists who are
expressed as earning fortunes. Also, politicians are
seen as the most affluent and successful as compared
to scientists.
• All this has turned the younger generation away from
pursuing science subjects but more closer to these
dominating models.
 Related challenges
• Shortage/Lack of entrepreneurs, businesses
and capital providers who are prepared to
invest in Science and technology programmes.
• Suggest more challenges!!!!
 What can be done?
• Read a paper by
• Kinyota, M. (2013). Students’ Perceptions of
Factors Influencing Choice of Science Streams
in Tanzania Secondary Schools. Master's
Capstone Projects. Paper 166. Available from:
http://scholarworks.umass.edu/cie_capstones
/166
 Reflections
1. Tanzania is endowed with natural resources in plenty, yet
they are poorly harnessed due to limited knowledge and
skills in science and technology. What do you consider to
be the best ways to mitigate the problem?
2. Outdated curriculum is one of the underlying reasons for
stunted growth of science and technology in Africa, and
Tanzania in particular. Assuming the role of a curriculum
developer, identify weaknesses in the current science
and technology curriculum for Tanzania secondary
schools and suggest in-puts and/or aspects you would
consider in making it both updated and relevant.
 Reflections cont …
3. It is paradoxical that young people are less
interested in studying subjects related to
science and technology in schools, yet more
than ever before, they are interested to use
technological tools and applications e.g
cellular phones, tablets, computers, whatsapp,
facebook e.t.c. what can educational
institutions do to harness this opportunity?