COLLECTION AND

PRESENTATION OF DATA
COLLECTION OF DATA
There is no formula for selecting the best method to be used in gathering data. It
depends on the researchers’ design of the study, the type of data, the time available to
complete the study, and the financial capacity.
METHODS OF COLLECTING
DATA
1. Interview method
Direct – The researcher personally interviews the respondent. It needs well-trained
interviewers to personally interview the respondents. It is appropriate if the needed
information is minimal, say 30.

Indirect Method- uses the telephone to interview respondents.

2. Questionnaire Method
A questionnaire is a list of well planned questions written on paper which can
be either personally administered or mailed by the researcher to the respondents.
3. Empirical Observation Method
- used commonly in psychological and anthropological studies.
- can be done though participant observation, non-participant observation, or
controlled observation
4. Test Method
-uses standard test. It is commonly used in psychological research and psychiatry.
Ex. IQ tests, aptitude tests, Achievement tests

5. Registration Method- the examples ofdata gathered using this method are those
obtained from the NSO, LTO, DepEd, CHED, SEC, etc.
- license of firearms, birth cert, marriage contract, motor registrations.
6. Mechanical Devices
-uses camera, projector, video tape and tape recorder, x-ray machine,
microscope, ultrasound, ct scan, telescopes, radar,etc.
TESTING THE VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF
RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

Objectives:
Describe valid and reliable research instruments
Test the validity and reliability of research instruments
WHAT IS VALIDITY?
Validity means the degree to which the research instrument
measures what it purpose to measure. Validity is truthfulness or
veracity of information.
For instance, the test item in English (Mythology) is “Who is the goddess of
beauty?” of the 120 students in English (Mythology), 120 or 120 percent answered
that the “goddess of beauty is Venus.” Their answer is correct and both valid and
reliable.

Valid in the sense that their answer is correct or true. Reliable because their answer is
consistent.
A valid test is always valid, but a reliable test is not always valid. For example,
the test item in Mathematics is “How many meters are there in one kilometer?” Of
the 100 students in Mathematics, 10 or 10 percent said that there are 1 000 meters in
one kilometer. The answer is correct and valid.
But 90 or 90 percent answered that “there are 950 meter in one kilometer.” Their
answer is incorrect but reliable because it is consistent. Thus, a reliable test is not
always valid.
TESTING THE VALIDITY OF THE RESEARCH
INSTRUMENT

Before testing the validity of the research instrument, the researcher must choose
experts in the field to validate the questionnaire (research instrument).
 In validating the questionnaire, the options retain (3), revise (2), and reject (1) are at
the end of each item. Then weighted mean (x) is computed to determine if the item is
to be retained, revised, or deleted.
RELIABILITY
Reliability means consistency of information. The information can be both reliable
and valid if it is consistent and true. But sometimes an information is incorrect
although it is consistent.
Hence, it is reliable but not valid due to incorrect information, thus a valid
information is always valid, but a reliable information may not always be valid.
For instance, the information regarding the performance of Mr. Z as Statistics
professor. His actual performance is OUTSTANDING, but his friends said that his
performance is Very Satisfactory. The information is reliable because it is consistent,
but not valid because the truth is OUTSTANDING. Hence, a reliable information
may not be always valid.
Most Common Method of Testing the Reliability of a Good Research
Instrument
These methods are (1) test-retest method, (2) parallel-form method, (3) split-half
method, and (4) internal-consistency method.
Internal consistency-use minitab software
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Having found the instrument valid and reliable, the researcher now is ready to float
the questionnaire to the respondents. Before the collection of data, it is necessary to
determine the sample size if the population is very large.
REASONS FOR DRAWING A
SAMPLE
Less time consuming than a census
Less costly to administer than a census
Less cumbersome/bulky and more practical to administer than a census of the
targeted population
To compute the sample size, the Slovin’s formula is used.
n= N/ 1+N(e) (e)

Where n=sample size

N=number of cases
e= margin of error
Example: N=2500

n = 2500/1+2500(0.05) (0.05)
 = 344.8 = 345

or we can use raosoft sampling calculator.

Census taking/ complete enumeration
- is a vital tool if the information gathered would be used for administrative purposes
and if it is of local or national concern.
A probability sample is a sample selected such that each item or
person in the population being studied has a known likelihood of
being included in the sample.
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
1. Random sampling=is the method of selecting a sample size (n) from a universe
(N)such that each member of the population has an equal chance of being included in
the sample and all possible combinations of size (n) have an equal chance of being
selected as the sample.
RANDOM SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES
Lottery or Fishbowl Technique
Sampling with the use of Table of Random Numbers
Systematic Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
Systematic Sampling-it involves selecting every nth element series representing the
population. A complete listing is required in this method.

k=N or population size/n or sample size

 For example, you choose a random start page and take every 5th
name in the directory until you have the desired sample size. Its
major advantage is that it is much less cumbersome to use than the
procedures outlined for simple random sampling.
 STRATIFIED SAMPLING
A population is first divided into subgroups, called strata, and a sample is
selected from each stratum.
 For example, you are interested in product preference between men and
women. So, you divide your sample into male and female members and
randomly select equal numbers within each subgroup (or "stratum").
With this technique, you are guaranteed to have enough of each subgroup for
meaningful analysis.
Simple stratified Random Sampling
Ex first year -200 50
second -200 50
third year 200 50
fourth year 200 50

N=800 n=200
Stratified Proportional Random Sampling
Ex first year 200 15% =30
second 200 25% =50
third year 200 27.5 =50
fourth year200 32.5% =65

N=800 n=200
Cluster Sampling: A population is first divided into primary units
then samples are selected from the primary units.
- Suppose an organization wishes to find out which sports
school students are participating in across Philippines..
 It would be too costly and take too long to survey every student, or
even some students from every school. Instead, 100 schools are
randomly selected from all over Philippines.
These schools are considered to be clusters. Then, every student in
these 100 schools is surveyed. In effect, students in the sample of
100 schools represent all students in Philippines.
Suppose a researcher wants to determine the average income of families in
barangay having 3 000 families that are distributed in 5 purok. Compute for the
sample size n at 5% margin of error.
Slovin’s formula:
n= N/ 1+N(e) (e)
n=3 000 / 1+ 3 000 (0.05)(0.05)
= 353
Purok Population Percentage Sample Size

1 800 (800/3000)*10 .27*353=95

0=27
2 400 13 46

3 500 17 60

4 600 20 71

5 700 23 81

N 3000 100 353

Nonprobability sampling does not meet this criterion and should
be used with caution. Nonprobability sampling techniques cannot
be used to infer from the sample to the general population.
Examples of nonprobability sampling include:
Convenience, Haphazard or Accidental sampling - members of the population are
chosen based on their relative ease of access. To sample friends, co-workers, or
shoppers at a single mall, are all examples of convenience sampling.
Snowball sampling - The first respondent refers a friend. The friend also refers a
friend, etc.
Judgmental sampling or Purposive sampling - The researcher chooses the sample
based on who they think would be appropriate for the study. This is used primarily
when there is a limited number of people that have expertise in the area being
researched.
Case study - The research is limited to one group, often with a similar characteristic
or of small size.

ad hoc quotas - A quota is established (say 65% women) and researchers are free to
choose any respondent they wish as long as the quota is met.
 NON-RANDOM SAMPLING
Judgment or Purposive Sampling
Quota Sampling-researcher’s own convenience, commonly used in
opinion polls
Cluster sampling- used when the target population is too large
Incidental Sampling-samples most available

Convenience Sampling-used in TV viewers and listeners

EXERCISE
Compute the sample size required for each population using sample size
calculator.

Hospital A 600

Hospital B 300

Hospital C 790
Reference
Priscila S. Altares, et.al.,(2003)Elementary Statistics:A Modern Approach, REX
Bookstore, Inc., Manila

Parreno and Jimenez, 2014, Basic Statistics, C&E Publishing, Inc.

DATA-GATHERING
PROCEDURE
Having found the questionnaire valid and reliable, the researcher proceeds to get
permit and approval of the head of the agency where the subjects are employed.
Once the permit is issued, the investigator administers the questionnaire to the
subjects of the study. The subjects are given ample time to answer the questionnaire
to arrive at valid and reliable information.
DATA PROCESSING
PROCEDURE
After the retrieval of the questionnaires, the researcher processes the raw data into
quantitative and qualitative forms. Data processing involves input, throughput,
and output.
Input involves the responses in the questionnaires of the subjects of the study
wherein the investigator tabulates the data. Throughput includes the statistical
treatment while output is the results of the study.
STATISTICAL TREATMENT
The statistical tools used to answer the specific research questions in the study must
be described and formula must be presented and explained with authorities. The level
of confidence either 1 percent or 5 percent must be stated to determine the
significance of the findings.
PRESENTATION OF DATA

After processing the data, the results should be presented using either of the
three forms, (1) textual form, (2) tabular form, and (3) graphical form, in order to
show the significant characteristics.
TABULAR FORM
This form is done by presenting the data in tables. Presenting the data by means of
statistical tables is a systematic way of arranging them-in rows and columns. Each
category in the table is placed in a row or column and the data are placed in their
respective cells. In this manner, the reader can compare immediately the different
data in different categories.
Table caption
This includes the table number and heading.
Stub. This refers to the rows of the table which is found at the left. Example
“Outstanding, Very Satisfactory, Satisfactory, and Fairly Satisfactory.”
Box heads. These are the headings within the box of the table wherein the data are
emphasized. Examples are Instructors and Professors Performance, Frequency and
Percentage.
Box of the table. This refers to the main part of the table containing the
figures which are placed in columns aligned with the box heads. For instance 15
(frequency), 8.33 (percentage), and so on.
 PERFORMANCE OF INSTRUCTORS AND PROFESSORS
Performance Frequency Percentage
Outstanding 15 8.33
Very Satisfactory 80 44.44
Satisfacory 55 30.56
Fair 30 16.67
Poor - -
Total 180 100.00
Graphical Form
A graph is geometric image or a mathematical picture of a set of data.
Presenting the data in this form gives a clearer picture to the readers.
There are numerous kinds of graphical representation but line graph, bar
graph, circle graph, and pictograph are the most commonly used in presenting
research data.
Line Graph
Line graph is made by plotting the data with a dot and connecting the plotted
points my means of straight lines. In other words, the X-axis and Y-axis data
intersect with each other bearing reasonable proportion with each other by plotting
with a dot and straight lines are drawn to connect neighboring dots or points.
A graph has four essential parts, namely (1) caption, (2) stub, (3) reasonable
proportion of data (X-axis) and (4) body. The legend (box head) is used when two or
more variables overlap with each other.
The caption is placed below the graph representing the figure, graph number,
and title heading.
Bar Graph
Bar graph is another way of presenting data is graphical form. It represents
data by areas in the form of vertical rectangles or bars. The bars are drawn with their
equal to each other and the height corresponds to the data in the X-axis
Bar graph has clearer presentation of data than line graph even if there are
two or more variables.
Circle Graph
Circle graph or pie graph is a way of presenting data in circular form. The
data divide the circle into parts and are represented in percent or in actual figures.
The total of the whole circle is 100% or the total of the whole variables. Circle graph
is commonly used in research paper symposium presentation.
Pictograph
Pictograph is a kind of graph which uses pictures or symbols to represent
information.
TRY THESE
Age of Patients in Hospital X in 2004

Range=H-L=60-6=54
N=1+3.3log36
= 1+3.3(1.556)
= 6.135 or 6
or 2n>N
If N=80
n7>80 ,
Interval =R/I =54/6=9
Age in Years Freq
60-68 1
51-59 2
42-50 3
33-41 2
24-32 20
15-23 5
6-14 3
Laurentina P. Calmorin and Ma. Lauremelch C. Piedad (2009) Stattistics with
Computer, REX Bookstore, Inc.
TEST YOURSELF
1. How would you account to the statement “ A valid test is always valid?” Why?
Support your answer.
2. Is reliable test always valid? Why? Give example.
3. How do you test the validity of a research instrument? Give examples.
5. Use the data below to test whether the instrument is valid or not.
Professional Skills Retain Revise Replace

1. Respects students’ maturity and sense

of responsibility
3 2 0
1. Confidents with the accuracy of her/ his
knowledge and skills 3 2 0
1. Has sense of humor

4 1 0
 Retain Revise Replace
4. Has a well-balanced personality
4 1 0
5. Tolerant and fair to all students
5 0 0
6. Shows no partiality and is
available to listen to students’
problems. 5 0 0
6. Plot the following data in graphical form( line, bar, and circle graphs)
 Retain Revise Replace
7. Is approachable, kind, and patient
4 1 0
8. Has passion for both nursing and
the learners
3 2 0