STATE SPACE

ANALYSIS
•There are two approaches to the analysis and design of
control systems: transfer function approach and the
state variable approach

•The state of a dynamic system is represented in terms

of a set of variables called state variables.

•System’s internal state variables denote the smallest

possible subsystem variables representing the whole
system at a given time.

•The minimum number of state variables required to

represent a system is equal to the order of system’s
differential equation, order of the transfer function’s
denominator after reduction to a proper fraction.
 Difference between transfer function and state
space approach
Transfer function approach State space approach
It is based on the input-output relationship It is based on the description of the system
or transfer function. equations in terms of n first-order
differential equations, which may be
combined into first-order vector-matrix
differential equations.

The transfer function approach is The state variable approach is applicable

applicable only to linear time-invariant to linear as well as non-linear, time-
systems and there too, it is generally invariant as well as time-varying, single-
limited to single-input-single-output input-single-output as well as multi-input-
systems. It is cumbersome for multi-input- multi-output systems.
multi-output systems.

In this initial conditions are neglected. In this initial conditions are considered.
Classical design methods are based on trial Design is not based on trial and error
and error procedures and design using this procedure. Design using this approach
approach yields only acceptable systems. yields optimal systems.

It is basically frequency-domain approach. It is basically a time-domain approach.

Only input, output and error signals are The state variables need not represent
considered important. The input and output physical variables. They need not even be
variables must be measurable. measureable and observable.
Generalized state equation:
Deriving system state equations for a mechanical system governing

Step 1: Write the differential equation of the system

Step 2: Decide the number state variables and denote it as x1,x2 etc or z1, z2,
… etc.

Step 3:define the state variables

Step 4: Write the first order derivative terms of state vectors

Step 5: Select an output variable

Step 6: Write the input and output equation in matrix notation

Deriving system state equation from transfer functions

Type A: Denominator in factored form

Here the transfer function in ‘S’ domain is simplified by partial
fractions and the inverse transform is obtained to get the state space
model.

Type B: Denominator not in factored form

Cross multiply and write the differential equations. Write the state
equations and obtain the state model.

Type C: Both numerator and denominator are not factored

Separate the system into two cascaded blocks. First block has
numerator equal to unity with a denominator term. Output of the first
block will be a new variable. Second block should have the numerator
term.
Obtain the state model of the mechanical system shown below.
For the system with transfer function, derive the state space equations using
partial fractions method

(1)

(2)
Obtain the state model for the following transfer functions:

(1)

(2)
Obtain the state model of the system described by the transfer function (by
cascade decomposition method).

(1)

(2)
 Transfer function from state model

1. The state space equation of a system is described by

. Find the transfer function G(s).

2. Obtain the transfer function of a system described by the state

model
Controllability

•A system is said to be completely state controllable at time t0, if it is

possible by means of an unconstrained control vector u(t) to transfer the
system from an initial state x(t0) to any other desired state in a finite interval
of time.

•A system is said to be observable at time t0, if with the system in state x(t0),
it is possible to determine this state from the observation of the output over
a finite time interval.

•For a linear time-variant system described by the following dynamic

equation.

Where, x(t) is an n*1 state vector and u(t) is a scalar to be completely state
controllable, it is necessary and sufficient that the following n*n
controllability matrix has a rank of n.

Since the matrices A and B are involved, sometimes we say that the pair
[A,B] is controllable which implies that S is of rank n.
1. Given the system

where

Determine the state and output controllability.

2. Determine whether the system described by the state equation

is completely controllable.
Observability

A linear time-invariant system described by the state and output equations.

is said to be completely observable, if every state x(t0) can be determined

from the observation of the output y(t) over a finite time interval, t0  t  t1.
The system is therefore completely observable if every transition of the state
eventually affects every element of the output vector. The concept of
observability is useful in solving the problem of reconstructing unmeasurable
state variables from measurable state variables in the minimum possible
length of the time.
The condition of observability depends on the matrices A and C of the system.
Kalman’s test of observability is-a general nth-order multi-input-multi-output
linear time-invariant system described by

is completely observable, if and only if, the rank of the observability matrix
is n.

This condition is also referred as the pair [AC] being observable.

1. Test the observability of the system described by

2. Show that the following system is not completely observable.

State transition matrix (STM)

•It is defined as the transition of the state from the initial time t= t 0 to any
time ‘t’ or final time ‘tf’ when the inputs are zero.

•The solution x(t) can be written as x(t)=eAtx(0). The solution of

homogenous state equation shows that the initial state x0 at t=0, is driven
to a state x(t) at time t. since this transition is carried out by the matrix
exponential eAt, eAt is known as the state transition matrix and is denoted
by (t).

•It represents the free response of the system.

•Governs the response that is excited by initial conditions.

•Also called as zero input response.

Properties of STM

1. (0)=I

(0)=eA.0=I

2. -1(t)=(-t)

-1(t) = 1/(t) = 1/eAt = e-At = (-t)

3. (t1+t2)= (t1) (t2)=  (t2)(t1)

(t1+t2) = eA(t1+t2)
= eAt1.eAt2 = eAt2.eAt1
= (t1). (t2) = (t2) . (t1)

4. [(t)]k= (kt)

[(t)]k = (t). (t) …………k times = eAt.At………k times = eAkt =  (kt)

1. Obtain the STM whose matrix A is given by by laplace
transformation method.
Solution:
Obtain the STM for the state model whose A matrix is given by
by diagonalization.
Solution

STM is given by
Cayley Hamilton theorem

It states that every square matrix A satisfies its own characteristic equation.

Procedure to find STM:

1. Find the eigen values of matrix A

2. For distinct eigen values, solve n simultaneous equation.

f(i) = 0 + 1xi + 2i2 + ……

3. For repeated eigen values, differentiate the equation with respect to 

4. Substitute the coefficients i obtained f(A) = 0I + 1A + ……

Obtain the STM for the given matrix

Solution

Solving the above equations,

Obtain the time response of the system described by

with the initial condition

Solution
The response of the system in s-domain is given by
X(s) = [sI-A]-1X(0+) + [sI-A]-1 BU(s) = (s)X(0+) + (s)BU(s).
Where, (s) = [sI-A]-1 is called the resolvent matrix