Subject :- Advanced Computer Networks

Unit 1:- Network layer and protocols

Unit 2:- Next generatin IP
Network Layer
3
 Function:
 Route packets end-to-end on a
Application network, through multiple hops
Presentation  Key challenge:
Session  How to represent addresses
Transport  How to route packets
 Scalability
Network  Convergence
Data Link
Physical
Routers, Revisited
4
 How to connect
multiple LANs?
 LANs may be
Routers
incompatible
 Ethernet, Wifi, etc…
 Connected networks
form an internetwork
 The Internet is the best
known example
Structure of the Internet
5

Network 3
Network 1

Network 4
Network 2

 Ad-hoc interconnection of networks

 No organized topology
 Vastly different technologies, link capacities
 Packets travel end-to-end by hopping through networks
 Routers “peer” (connect) different networks
 Different packets may take different routes
Internetworking Issues
6
 Naming / Addressing
 How do you designate hosts?
 Routing
 Must be scalable (i.e. a switched Internet won’t work)
 Service Model
 What gets sent?
 How fast will it go?
 What happens if there are failures?
 Must deal with heterogeneity
 Remember, every network is different
7 Outline
 Addressing
 Class-based
 CIDR
 IPv4 Protocol Details
 Packed Header
 Fragmentation
 IPv6
Possible Addressing Schemes
8
 Flat
 e.g. each host is identified by a 48-bit MAC address
 Router needs an entry for every host in the world
 Too big
 Too hard to maintain (hosts come and go all the time)
 Too slow (more later)

 Hierarchy
 Addresses broken down into segments
 Each segment has a different level of specificity
Example: Telephone Numbers
9
1-617-373-1234
3278

Very General

West Village
West Village G
H
Room1234
Room 256

Updates are Local Very Specific

Binary Hierarchy Example
10

1** Datagram,
10* Destination = 101
100
101 11*
0**
110 00*
111 000
001 01*

010
011
IP Addressing
11
 IPv4: 32-bit addresses
 Usually written in dotted notation, e.g. 192.168.21.76
 Each number is a byte
 Stored in Big Endian order
0 8 16 24 31
Decimal 192 168 21 76

Hex C0 A8 15 4C

Binary 11000000 10101000 00010101 01001100

IP Addressing and Forwarding
12
 Routing Table Requirements
 For every possible IP, give the next hop
 But for 32-bit addresses, 232 possibilities!
 Too slow: 48GE ports and 4x10GE needs 176Gbps bandwidth
DRAM: ~1-6 Gbps; TCAM is fast, but 400x cost of DRAM
 Hierarchical address scheme
 Separate the address into a network and a host
0 31
Pfx Network Host

Known by all Known by edge

routers (LAN) routers
Classes of IP Addresses
13
0 1 8 16 24 31
Example: MIT
 Class A 0 Ntwk Host
18.*.*.*

1-126
0 2 8 16 24 31
Example: NEU
 Class B 10 Network Host
129.10.*.*
128-191
0 3 8 16 24 31
Example:
 Class C 110 Network Host
216.63.78.*

192-223
How Do You Get IPs?
14
 IP address ranges controlled by IANA

 Internet Assigned Number Authority

 Roots go back to 1972, ARPANET, UCLA
 Today, part of ICANN
 IANA grants IPs to regional authorities
 ARIN (American Registry of Internet Numbers) may grant
you a range of IPs
 You may then advertise routes to your new IP range
 There are now secondary markets, auctions, …
Two Level Hierarchy
15

Pfx Network Host

Subtree size
determined by …
network class
Class Sizes
16

Way too big

Class Prefix Network Number of Classes Hosts per Class
Bits Bits
A 1 7 27 – 2 = 126 224 – 2 = 16,777,214
(0 and 127 are reserved) (All 0 and all 1 are reserved)
B 2 14 214 = 16,398 216 – 2 = 65,534
(All 0 and all 1 are reserved)
C 3 21 221 = 2,097,512 28 – 2 = 254
(All 0 and all 1 are reserved)
Total: 2,114,036

Too many Too small to

network IDs be useful
Subnets
17
 Problem: need to break up large A and B classes
 Solution: add another layer to the hierarchy
 From the outside, appears to be a single network
 Only 1 entry in routing tables
 Internally, manage multiple subnetworks
 Split the address range using a subnet mask

Pfx Ntwk Subnet Host

Subnet Mask: 11111111 11111111 11000000 00000000
 Subnet Example
18
 Extract network:
IP Address: 10110101 11011101 01010100 01110010
Subnet Mask: & 11111111 11111111 11000000 00000000
Result: 10110101 11011101 01000000 00000000

 Extract host:
IP Address: 10110101 11011101 01010100 01110010
Subnet Mask: & ~(11111111 11111111 11000000 00000000)
Result: 00000000 00000000 00010100 01110010
N-Level Subnet Hierarchy
19

Pfx Network Subnet Host

…
• Tree does not have a fixed depth
• Increasingly specific subnet masks
…
Subtree size determined
by length of subnet …
mask
Example Routing Table
20

Address Pattern Subnet Mask Destination Router

0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 Router 4
18.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 Router 2
128.42.0.0 255.255.0.0 Router 3
128.42.128.0 255.255.128.0 Router 5
128.42.222.0 2555.255.255.0 Router 1

 Question: 128.42.222.198 matches four rows

 Which router do we forward to?
 Longest prefix matching
 Use the row with the longest number of 1’s in the mask
 This is the most specific match
Subnetting Revisited
21
 Question: does subnetting solve all the problems of
class-based routing?

NO
 Classes are still too coarse
 Class A can be subnetted, but only 126 available
 Class C is too small
 Class B is nice, but there are only 16,398 available
 Routing tables are still too big
 2.1 million entries per router
Classless Inter Domain Routing
22
 CIDR, pronounced ‘cider’
 Key ideas:
 Get rid of IP classes
 Use bitmasks for all levels of routing
 Aggregation to minimize FIB (forwarding information
base)
 Arbitrary split between network and host
 Specified as a bitmask or prefix length
 Example: Northeastern
 129.10.0.0 with netmask 255.255.0.0
 129.10.0.0 / 16
Aggregation with CIDR
23
 Original use: aggregating class C ranges
 One organization given contiguous class C ranges
 Example: Microsoft, 207.46.192.* – 207.46.255.*
 Represents 26 = 64 class C ranges
 Specified as CIDR address 207.46.192.0/18
0 8 16 24 31
Decimal 207 46 192 0
Hex CF 2E C0 00
Binary 11001111 00101110 11xxxxxx xxxxxxxx

18 Bits Frozen By Netmask 14 Arbitrary Bits

Example CIDR Routing Table
24

Address Netmask Third Byte Byte Range

207.46.0.0 19 000xxxxx 0 – 31
207.46.32.0 19 001xxxxx 32 – 63
207.46.64.0 19 010xxxxx 64 – 95
207.46.128.0 18 10xxxxxx 128 – 191
207.46.192.0 18 11xxxxxx 192 – 255

Hole in the Routing Table: No coverage for 96 – 127

207.46.96.0/19
Size of CIDR Routing Tables
25

 From www.cidr-report.org
 CIDR has kept IP routing table sizes in check
 Currently ~500,000 entries for a complete IP routing table
 Only required by backbone routers
We had a special day this summer!
26
 512K day – August 12, 2014
 Default threshold size for IPv4 route data in older Cisco
routers  512K routes
 Some routers failed over to slower memory
 RAM vs. CAM (content addressable memory)
 Some routes dropped
 Cisco issues update in May anticipating this issue
 Reallocated some IPv6 space for IPv4 routes
 http://cacm.acm.org/news/178293-internet-routing-failures-bring-
architecture-changes-back-to-the-table/fulltext
Causes and solutions
27
 Traffic engineering
 Sometimes I want to announce different prefixes to different neighbors
(e.g., use multiple longer prefixes)
 Security
 E.g., announce two /9s in addition to a /8 to help prevent dark-space
hijacks
 New markets
 New networks in regions like Africa, Middle East, etc. with their own
prefixes
 Solutions
 Stop-gap: update router to reallocate IPv6 memory
 Route aggregation/prefix filtering
 Upgrade routers with more memory ($$$$)
Takeaways
28
 Hierarchical addressing is critical for scalability
 Not all routers need all information
 Limited number of routers need to know about changes
 Non-uniform hierarchy useful for heterogeneous
networks
 Class-based addressing is too course
 CIDR improves scalability and granularity
 Implementation challenges
 Longest prefix matching is more difficult than schemes with
no ambiguity
29 Outline
 Addressing
 Class-based
 CIDR
 IPv4 Protocol Details
 Packed Header
 Fragmentation
 IPv6
IP Datagrams
30
 IP Datagrams are like a letter
 Totally self-contained
 Include all necessary addressing information
 No advanced setup of connections or circuits
0 4 8 12 16 19 24 31
Version HLen DSCP/ECN Datagram Length
Identifier Flags Offset
TTL Protocol Checksum
Source IP Address
Destination IP Address
Options (if any, usually not)
Data
IP Header Fields: Word 1
31
 Version: 4 for IPv4
 Header Length: Number of 32-bit words (usually 5)
 Type of Service: Priority information (unused)
 Datagram Length: Length of header + data in bytes
0 4 8 12 16 19 24 31
Version HLen DSCP/ECN Datagram Length
Identifier Flags Offset
TTL Protocol Limits Checksum
packets
Source IP Address
to 65,535
Destination IP Address
bytes
Options (if any, usually not)
Data
IP Header Fields: Word 3
32
 Time to Live: decremented by each router
 Used to kill looping packets
 Protocol: ID of encapsulated protocol
 6 = TCP, 17 = UDP
 Checksum
0 4 8 12 16 19 24 31
Version HLen DSCP/ECN Datagram Length
Identifier Flags Offset
TTL Protocol Checksum
Source IP Address
Used to Destination IP Address
implement Options (if any, usually not)
trace route Data
IP Header Fields: Word 4 and 5
33
 Source and destination address
 In theory, must be globally unique
 In practice, this is often violated

0 4 8 12 16 19 24 31
Version HLen DSCP/ECN Datagram Length
Identifier Flags Offset
TTL Protocol Checksum
Source IP Address
Destination IP Address
Options (if any, usually not)
Data
Problem: Fragmentation
34

MTU = 4000 MTU = 2000 MTU = 1500

Datagram Dgram1 Dgram2 1 2 3 4

 Problem: each network has its own MTU

 DARPA principles: networks allowed to be heterogeneous
 Minimum MTU may not be known for a given path
 IP Solution: fragmentation
 Split datagrams into pieces when MTU is reduced
 Reassemble original datagram at the receiver
IP Header Fields: Word 2
35
 Identifier: a unique number for the original datagram
 Flags: M flag, i.e. this is the last fragment
 Offset: byte position of the first byte in the fragment
 Divided by 8
0 4 8 12 16 19 24 31
Version HLen TOS Datagram Length
Identifier Flags Offset
TTL Protocol Checksum
Source IP Address
Destination IP Address
Options (if any, usually not)
Data
Fragmentation Example
36

MTU = 4000 MTU = 2000 MTU = 1500

Length = 2000, M = 1
Offset = 0
IP Data
Length = 3820, M = 0
20 1980
IP Hdr Data
20 3800 1980
Length = 1840, M = 0 + 1820
Offset = 1980 = 3800
IP Data
20 1820
Fragmentation Example
37

MTU = 2000 MTU = 1500

Length = 2000, M = 1 Length = 1500, M = 1

Offset = 0 Offset = 0
IP Data IP Data Length = 1500, M = 1
20 1980 20 1480 Offset = 1980
IP Data
20 1480
Length = 520, M = 1
1480
Length = 1840, M = 0 Offset = 1480 + 500
Offset = 1980 IP Data Length = 360, M = 0
= 1980
Offset = 3460
IP Data 20 500
20 1820
IP Data
20 340
IP Fragment Reassembly
38
Length = 1500, M = 1, Offset = 0  Performed at destination
IP Data
20 1480
 M = 0 fragment gives us
Length = 520, M = 1, Offset = 1480
total data size
IP Data
 360 – 20 + 3460 = 3800
20 500  Challenges:
Length = 1500, M = 1, Offset = 1980  Out-of-order fragments
IP Data  Duplicate fragments
20 1480  Missing fragments
Length = 360, M = 0, Offset = 3460  Basically, memory
IP Data management nightmare
20 340
Fragmentation Concepts
39
 Highlights many key Internet characteristics
 Decentralized and heterogeneous
 Each network may choose its own MTU
 Connectionless datagram protocol
 Each fragment contains full routing information
 Fragments can travel independently, on different paths
 Best effort network
 Routers/receiver may silently drop fragments
 No requirement to alert the sender
 Most work is done at the endpoints
 i.e. reassembly
Fragmentation in Reality
40
 Fragmentation is expensive
 Memory and CPU overhead for datagram reconstruction
 Want to avoid fragmentation if possible
 MTU discovery protocol
 Send a packet with “don’t fragment” bit set
 Keep decreasing message length until one arrives
 May get “can’t fragment” error from a router, which will
explicitly state the supported MTU
 Router handling of fragments
 Fast, specialized hardware handles the common case
 Dedicated, general purpose CPU just for handling fragments
41 Outline
 Addressing
 Class-based
 CIDR
 IPv4 Protocol Details
 Packed Header
 Fragmentation
 IPv6
The IPv4 Address Space Crisis
42
 Problem: the IPv4 address space is too small
 232 = 4,294,967,296 possible addresses
 Less than one IP per person
 Parts of the world have already run out of addresses
 IANA assigned the last /8 block of addresses in 2011
Regional Internet Registry
Region (RIR) Exhaustion Date
Asia/Pacific APNIC April 19, 2011
Europe/Middle East RIPE September 14, 2012
North America ARIN 13 Jan 2015 (Projected)
South America LACNIC 13 Jan 2015 (Projected)
Africa AFRINIC 17 Jan 2022(Projected)
IPv6
43
 IPv6, first introduced in 1998(!)
 128-bit addresses
 4.8 * 1028 addresses per person
 Address format
 8 groups of 16-bit values, separated by ‘:’
 Leading zeroes in each group may be omitted
 Groups of zeroes can be omitted using ‘::’

2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:ff00:0042:8329
2001:0db8:0:0:0:ff00:42:8329
2001:0db8::ff00:42:8329
IPv6 Trivia
44
 Who knows the IP for localhost?
 127.0.0.1

 What is localhost in IPv6?

 ::1
IPv6 Header
45
 Double the size of IPv4 (320 bits vs. 160 bits)
0 4 8 12 16 19 24 31
Version DSCP/ECN Flow Label
Datagram Length Next Header Hop Limit
Version Same
= 6 as IPv4 Groups
Same as IPv4 Same as into Same as TTL in
packets
Source IP Address
Protocol in for
flows, used IPv4
IPv4QoS

Destination IP Address
Differences from IPv4 Header
46
 Several header fields are missing in IPv6
 Header length – rolled into Next Header field
 Checksum – was useless, so why keep it
 Identifier, Flags, Offset
 IPv6 routers do not support fragmentation
 Hosts are expected to use path MTU discovery

 Reflects changing Internet priorities

 Today’s networks are more homogeneous
 Instead, routing cost and complexity dominate
Performance Improvements
47
 No checksums to verify
 No need for routers to handle fragmentation
 Simplified routing table design
 Address space is huge
 No need for CIDR (but need for aggregation)
 Standard subnet size is 264 addresses
 Simplified auto-configuration
 Neighbor Discovery Protocol
 Used by hosts to determine network ID
 Host ID can be random!
Additional IPv6 Features
48
 Source Routing
 Host specifies the route to wants packet to take
 Mobile IP
 Hosts can take their IP with them to other networks
 Use source routing to direct packets
 Privacy Extensions
 Randomly generate host identifiers
 Make it difficult to associate one IP to a host
 Jumbograms
 Support for 4Gb datagrams
Deployment Challenges
49

HTTP, FTP, SMTP, RTP, IMAP, …

TCP, UDP, ICMP
IPv4
Ethernet, 802.11x, DOCSIS, …
Fiber, Coax, Twisted Pair, Radio, …

 Switching to IPv6 is a whole-Internet upgrade

 All routers, all hosts
 ICMPv6, DHCPv6, DNSv6
 2013: 0.94% of Google traffic was IPv6, 2.5% today
Transitioning to IPv6
50
 How do we ease the transition from IPv4 to IPv6?
 Today, most network edges are IPv6 ready
 Windows/OSX/iOS/Android all support IPv6
 Your wireless access point probably supports IPv6
 The Internet core is hard to upgrade
 … but a IPv4 core cannot route IPv6 traffic
IPv6 IPv4 IPv6
Ready Only :( Ready
IPv6 Packets
Home Core Business
Network Internet Network
Transition Technologies
51
 How do you route IPv6 packets over an IPv4 Internet?
 Transition Technologies
 Use tunnels to encapsulate and route IPv6 packets over the
IPv4 Internet
 Several different implementations
 6to4
 IPv6 Rapid Deployment (6rd)
 Teredo
 … etc.
6to4 Basics
52
 Problem: you’ve been assigned an IPv4 address, but
you want an IPv6 address
 Your ISP can’t or won’t give you an IPv6 address
 You can’t just arbitrarily choose an IPv6 address
 Solution: construct a 6to4 address
 6to4 addresses always start with 2002::
 Embed the 32-bit IPv4 inside the 128-bit IPv6 address
IPv4: 207. 46. 192. 0

IPv6: 20 02: CF 2E: C0 00: 0000

Routing from 6to4 to 6to4
53
 How does a host using 6to4 send a packet to another
host using 6to4?

Dest: 2002:104F:0800::

Dest: 16.79.8.0

IPv4
Internet

IPv4 – 207.46.192.0 IPv4 – 16.79.8.0

IPv6 – 2002:CF2E:C000:: IPv6 – 2002:104F:0800::
Routing from 6to4 to Native IPv6
54 Special, anycasted
IPv4 address for
Dest: 1893:92:13:99:: 6to4 Relay Routers

Dest: 192. 88.99.1

IPv4
Internet
IPv4 – 192.88.99.1
IPv6 – 2002:: /16
IPv4 – 207.46.192.0
IPv6 – 2002:CF2E:C000::
IPv6
Many ISPs Internet
provide 6to4
relay routers

IPv6 – 1893:92:13:99::
Routing from Native IPv6 to 6to4
55

IPv4
Internet
IPv4 – 192.88.99.1
IPv6 – 2002:: /16
IPv4 – 207.46.192.0
IPv6 – 2002:CF2E:C000::
Dest: 207.46.192.0
IPv6
Use normal IPv6 Dest: 2002:CF2E:C000::
Internet
routing to reach a
6to4 relay router

IPv6 – 1893:92:13:99::
Problems with 6to4
56
 Uniformity
 Not all ISPs have deployed 6to4 relays
 Quality of service
 Third-party 6to4 relays are available
 …but, they may be overloaded or unreliable
 Reachability
 6to4 doesn’t work if you are behind a NAT
 Possible solutions
 IPv6 Rapid Deployment (6rd)
 Each ISP sets up relays for its customers
 Does not leverage the 2002:: address space
 Teredo
 Tunnels IPv6 packets through UDP/IPv4 tunnels
Consequences of IPv6
57
 Beware unintended consequences of IPv6
 Example: IP blacklists
 Currently, blacklists track IPs of spammers/bots
 Few IPv4 addresses mean list sizes are reasonable
 Hard for spammers/bots to acquire new IPs
 Blacklists will not work with IPv6
 Address space is enormous
 Acquiring new IP addresses is trivial