Intercultural

Communication
The Concept of Communication
Definition of Communication
 finding a single definition of communication is a difficult task

 some 95 definitions of communication published in the 1950s and 1960s

 since then countless other definitions of communication have been added to

the list

 consider the simple act of greeting a friend – people from different cultures
express the same concept or idea differently

 for example, in New Zealand a casual hello is acceptable as a form of greeting;

in Japan, a bow is expected when greeting one’s boss; in Arab culture, friends
are commonly greeted with a full embrace and a kiss on the cheek; in Serbia
and in Belgium, friends kiss three times on the cheek as a form of greeting; in
Malaysia, friends may greet each other by folding two hands in front of the
chest
 communication = the exchange of meaning

 thisinvolves the sending and receiving of information

between a sender and a receiver

 thishappens not only through the use of words, but

also through non-verbal factors, such as gestures
and facial expression

 the message received can be very different from

the message that was sent
Components of communication

 we can identify eight components of human communication, which

usually operate simultaneously

 in their most basic form, these components are found in every

culture

 they are sender, message, channel, receiver, encoding,

decoding, noise, and feedback

 all these components exist in the specific context in which the

 interculturalcommunication takes place when
the sender and the receiver are from different
cultures

 communication can be very difficult if there is a

big difference between the two cultures

 ifthere is too much 'cultural noise', it can break

down completely
 Sender
 the person who is sending a message (verbally or nonverbally), which
may be intentional or unintentional

 the origin of information

 someone who needs and wants to exchange information with others

 the need may be conscious, such as asking someone directions

(seeking information), expressing feelings about a wedding attended
(sharing experience), or assigning tasks to an employee
(accomplishing tasks)

 the need to communicate may also be non-conscious – for example,

frowning when hearing music one does not like or in disagreeing with
 Encoding
 the process of putting an idea or message into a set of symbols
(e.g. words, gestures)

 to select and arrange verbal and nonverbal symbols according

to rules that are known and shared by the group

 for example, a member of one culture might see a close friend

and decide to smile, encoding her message of greeting
according to the ‘rules’ of her language community

 a member of another culture might instead place her hands in

front of the chest and bow to her friend, encoding the
message of greeting according to a different set of cultural
rules
 Message
 what is conveyed verbally (e.g. in speech, writing) or nonverbally from
one person (the sender) to one or more persons (the receiver(s))

 the form and content of the message may differ

 in a spoken apology, for example, the message form is how the apology is
made (e.g. type of sentence structure, use or non-use of politeness
discourse markers, type of intonation) and the message content is the
substance of the apology (e.g. regret about an overdue assignment)

 each culture has its own way of forming and expressing messages

 in India and Bulgaria, ‘wiggling’ the head from side to side indicates ‘Yes’
whereas a Dutch person would nod her head to express the same idea
 Channel
 the way in which a message is conveyed from one person to another

 the most common channels or paths of communication are speech, writing

and nonverbal signals

 the channel can be sound, sight, words, telephone, the internet, fax,
etc.

 the degree to which an individual prefers one channel over another is often
determined by his or her culture

 in the United States, words are highly valued, while in some Mediterranean
cultures, touch is a major communication channel; in Finland and Japan,
silence is as significant a carrier of messages as words and sound
 Noise (Interference)
 any disturbance or defect that interferes with or distorts the
transmission of the message from one person to another (e.g. background
sounds, fatigue, lack of concentration on the message, feeling unwell,
unfamiliar jargon, an unfamiliar accent, etc.)

 noise can be physical: distracting sounds or sights

 noise can be psychological: having a headache or worrying about bills
 noise can be semantic: different interpretations of a concept

 for example: different interpretations of a concept like individualism

 in Germany, individualism is a positive concept, referring to people as

independent, assertive, and goal-oriented; in South Korea, however,
individualism is more likely to be associated with selfishness and a lack of
concern for the group – a negative feature
 Receiver
 the person who is receiving the message that is being sent,
whether intentional or not

 he or she normally shares the same code as the sender

 in most interpersonal communication, participants are both

senders and receivers, whereas mass communication may be (but
is not always) one way

 individual characteristics, including those related to race, sex,

age, education, culture, values, and attitudes, all affect how
people both send and receive messages
 Decoding
 the process by which the receiver tries to understand the meaning of a message that
is being sent, i.e. the receiver translates or interprets the meanings of the symbols

 the verbal or nonverbal reaction, if any, of the receiver after decoding the
message

 a process of assigning meaning to codes

 like encoding, interpretation of the message is influenced by culture

 the same coded message, therefore, may be decoded differently by different people

 for example, Italians may regard animated conversation and loud laughing in
public as a sign of happiness, whereas a Thai woman might believe that such an
outward display of emotions should be reserved for the privacy of one’s home;
Swedes tend to speak softly and calmly, it is rare that you witness a Swede
 Feedback
 verbal or nonverbal signals that receivers give to a speaker to indicate they have
processed what the speaker has said (e.g. smiles, nods, grunts, comments)

 these may be intentional or unintentional (below the level of awareness of the sender)

 another component that is modified by culture

 for example, while members of US culture would feel comfortable saying, ‘I don’t agree
with what you said’ as a means of feedback in a conversation, members of Chinese
culture would communicate the same thought by taking a deep breath

 Context: the overall environment in which the communication occurs

(e.g. physical, psychological, sociocultural, political, sociorelational, etc.)
 Barriers to intercultural
communication
 Attitude

 Perception

 Stereotypes

 Interpretation

 Culture shock

 ‘Misunderstandings don’t exist; only the failure to communicate

exists.’
 Attitude
 1. Globalization means that there is now one business culture
everywhere in the world.

 2. If they want to do business with me, then they'll have to

adapt to my culture.

 3. „When in Rome, do as the Romans do.”

 4. Today I'm dealing with the Americans, tomorrow with a group

from Japan. I can't possibly learn all I need to know about all
the cultures I have to deal with.

 5. What I need when I go abroad is a list of dos and don'ts.

 1. business people do share certain beliefs and values, but it is highly
misleading to believe that they are always stronger than other types of
cultural influence

 even McDonalds, which tries to standardize its products, has to adapt

them to local taste, for instance, by serving lamb rather than beef-
burgers in India

 the pressure of globalization can also lead to the strengthening of local

identities

 the idea that people from different cultures can be fused together is at the heart of the
concept of the 'melting pot', which was widely believed in in the USA until the mid-
20th century

 it was succeeded by concepts of cultural pluralism, or the 'salad bowl', where

 tastes are becoming everywhere similar and
homogeneous

 but the watchword should still be Think global, act

local (glocal)

 acting local means having local market knowledge:

there are still wide variations in taste, customs,
behaviour and expectations between consumers in
different markets
International Marketing Mix:Product
 McDonalds is a global player however, their burgers are
adapted to local needs

 in India where a cow is a sacred animal their burgers contain

chicken or fish instead of beef

 in Mexico McDonalds burgers come with chilli sauce

 Coca-cola in some parts of the world tastes sweeter than in

other places

 brands such as Nike, Levis are all successful global brands where
they have a standardised approach to their marketing mix
 Burger King in Venezuela does not use sesame seed buns, the
milkshakes there are sweeter and creamier, and even the ketchup is
much sweeter

 Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC) serves “chips” rather than “fries” in

England and has added rice and smoked chicken to its menus in
Japan

 “Pop-Tarts,” which had proved to be quite a successful product in

the United States, were unpopular in Britain; not only was the taste
considered too sweet there, but also most potential buyers at the
time did not own toasters which could correctly warm the product

 Ford experienced well-publicized problems in Europe during the

1960s partially as a result of the amount of “Americanization” being
introduced into the look of its European cars
 McDonald’s
 standardised products like the Big Mac are available worldwide, but the company
has also customised menus to cater to local tastes in countries like India and China,
such as the Teriyaki Burger in Japan

 in India where the cow is a sacred animal their burgers contain chicken or fish
instead of beef and in Mexico McDonalds burgers come with chilli sauce

 McDonald’s also sold beer in Germany, wine in France, mutton pot pies in Australia,
and “McSpaghetti” in the Philippines

 the company also customises its promotional campaigns and advertising to cater to
local preferences and cultural events, such as offering a turkey burger during the
Thanksgiving season in the United States
 Coca-Cola

 the soft drink is a standardised product, but the company has customised
flavours for different markets, such as the popular green tea-flavoured Coke in
Japan or the mango-flavoured Coke in India

 Coca Cola in the USA tastes different from Coke in the UK, which in turn tastes
different from Coke in India

 Soft drinks: Do drinks companies try to satisfy varying tastes in fizziness and
sweetness?

 elderberry juice in Romania

 Nike

 the athletic footwear brand has a standardised product line, but it also customises
products to cater to local preferences, such as the China-specific Lunar New Year
collection

 the Brazil-specific Air Max 2090

 the Air Max 90 Shanghai, which features a design inspired by the city's architecture
 Unilever

 the multinational consumer goods company has a standardised product line, but it also
customises products to cater to local tastes, such as the local herbal ingredients used
in the Pepsodent toothpaste in Indonesia

 Unilever also customises the packaging of their products to cater to local preferences,
such as using a sachet packaging format for their shampoo products in Southeast Asia

 in China, the company's Omo brand of laundry detergent includes a special ingredient
to tackle stubborn stains from rice, while in India, Unilever promotes its Fair & Lovely
skin cream to appeal to cultural values around fairness and beauty
 Nestle

 the food and beverage company has a standardised product line, but it also
customises products to cater to local tastes, such as the ube-flavoured KitKat in the
Philippines

 the green tea-flavoured KitKat in Japan

 IKEA - has a standardised product line, but it also customises products to
cater to local preferences, such as the wider beds in the US market or
furniture designed for small apartments in Japan

 Starbucks - has a standardised product line, but it also customises menus

to cater to local tastes, such as the matcha latte in Japan and the chai
latte in India

 Airbnb - the accommodation booking platform has customised its services

to cater to local preferences, such as offering traditional ryokans in
Japan or haciendas in Mexico

 Spotify - has a standardised service, but it also customises playlists and

recommendations to cater to local music scenes, such as the 'K-Pop
 Japanese refrigerators being smaller than European ones, and
American refrigerators larger than both

 the refrigerator motors were the major problem; they were

simply too noisy for the typical Japanese home, which was
often built with literally paper-thin walls

 the size of Coca-Cola bottles will need to be adapted to the

local situation
 there is a need to adapt the product itself to local markets
because of legal constraints

 the amount of colouring that is permissible in soft drinks is

limited in some countries to the extent that it makes Coca-
Cola look greyish rather than brown
 Numbers
 each country has its own special lucky and unlucky numbers and using the wrong
number can indeed be unlucky

 a U.S. golf ball manufacturer, for example, tried to sell golf balls, packaged in
groups of four, to the Chinese

 problems arose because the pronunciation of the word “four” in Chinese also sounds
like the Chinese word for “death”

 positive connotations of numbers can also be used for effect in advertising

 Mercedes chose to call one of its cars the C88, and thus exploited the fact that in
China the number 8 is considered to be lucky, and it is also considered lucky to have
a double number
 Colours
 advertisers also have to take into account what associations
different cultures have with different colours, and to take care
which colours are used in advertising or packaging materials

 What do you associate with the following colours?

 1 white
 2 black
 3 red
 4 green
 5 purple
 1 white can be used in the West to indicate birth, or other happy events, while in China
it is linked with death

 2 black is associated in the West with death, but has no such meaning in China

 3 red is the colour of blood, but can be interpreted to mean ‘life’ or ‘death’

 4 in the USA, green is used to indicate freshness and health, but in some cultures it is
associated with dangerous jungles — it is even forbidden in some parts of Indonesia

 5 in the USA, purple indicates that something is inexpensive, whereas in some parts of
Asia it means the opposite
 green is often associated with disease in countries that have dense, green jungles but
is associated with cosmetics by the French, Dutch, and Swedes

 Latin Americans generally associate purple with death, but dark red is the appropriate
mourning color along the Ivory Coast

 in many countries, bright colors such as yellow and orange express joy

 red is felt to be blasphemous in some African countries but is generally considered to

be a color reflecting wealth or luxury elsewhere

 pictures of flowers can be found on many package labels, but there, too, caution is
required, certain flowers and their colors can convey hidden messages

 a purple flower symbolizes death to a Brazilian while yellow flowers represent death
or disrespect in Mexico

 in France and the Soviet Union, however, the yellow flower signifies infidelity
 Brand names
 finding a brand name that sounds right in all languages is a real headache for
advertising specialists

 General Motors decided to export its Chevrolet Nova to Spanish speaking Puerto
Rico, keeping the same name for the model: in Spanish, however, the name may be
read Chevrolet no va, i.e. 'Chevrolet does not run' - hardly the name you want to
give to a car, even if people only perceive this meaning subliminally

 in Gdansk, Poland: a beautiful full leather briefcase of the highest quality at a

fraction of what it would cost in Western Europe

 the brand name, however, is Plastyk: that word means 'artist' in Polish, but most
tourists will not know that

 Who would want to carry a leather briefcase called 'plastic' around?

 the English word ‘mist’ for a perfume would not be suitable for the German
market, because in German the word means ‘manure’

 the Mitsubishi ‘Pajero’ is a rude word in Spanish, and therefore not suitable for that
market, while in Britain, the Lancia ‘Dedra’ was associated with death

 the Fiat ‘Uno’ was not suitable for Finland because in Finnish it means ‘fool’

 Bahlsen found that while their product name for a biscuit called ‘Kipferl’ didn’t
work in France, because people couldn’t pronounce the word, the same product
became successful under the name ‘Croissant de Lune’

 ‘Nike’ is a swear word in Arabic

 “Apache” pickup trucks do not sell well to most American Indians—that is, except
to Apaches

 Studebaker introduced the “Dictator” back in 1927 but had to discontinue the line
 in the early 1980s, a German beer company launched a new brand in West Africa
and named it “Eku”

 sales were uneven, and it took the firm two years to figure out the cause

 foreigners and some local tribe members purchased the beer, but one important
tribe totally avoided it

 apparently eku was the local slang word in that tribe for excrement

 as word spread, members of other tribes and even the foreigners started drinking it
less
 Toyota has been a very successful international company, but it too has had
some problems

 its rather popular MR2, for example, has sold well in several countries, but
has had troubles in France because the name MR2 is often pronounced as
merde, meaning human waste

 the trade magazine that promoted giftware and used the word gift in its
title and as part of its name

 when it was later revealed that Gift is the German word for “poison,” a red-
faced publishing executive supposedly retorted that the Germans should
simply find a new word for poison

 Kodak - a research team deliberately “developed” this name after carefully

searching for a word which was pronounceable everywhere but had no
specific meaning anywhere – anothe example is Exxon
International Marketing Mix:Price (Pricing)
 pricing on an international scale is a complex task: as well as taking into account
traditional price considerations such as fixed and variable costs, competition and target
groups an organisation needs to consider additional factor such as:

 the cost of transport

 tariffs or import duties
 exchange rate fluctuations
 personal disposal incomes of the target market
 the currency they want to be paid in
 the general economic situation of the country and how this will influence pricing

 the internet has created further challenges as customers can view global prices and
purchase items from around the world

 this has increased the level of competition and with it pricing pressures, as global
competitors may have lower operating costs
 thesame product may also be positioned differently in the
market depending on the country

a McDonald's hamburger is a cheap, everyday kind of food in

the United States

 itis slightly more expensive, and probably not eaten with the
same frequency, in Europe

 it may be a luxury item in certain countries

 in Manila, a poor family had a wedding dinner in full wedding

 Negotiation
 in some cultures, such as those in the Middle East, negotiation is
expected and it is common for the seller to start with a high price that is
expected to be haggled down

 brands like Mercedes-Benz and BMW are known to use negotiation in

this geographic area as a pricing strategy, with dealers offering high
initial prices that are then haggled down

 American managers are accustomed to pressure decision making and

are often given the authority to make final decisions

 Japanese managers, on the other hand, prefer to negotiate more

slowly, tend to make decisions by group consensus, and always politely
listen to everyone in their group before reaching an official decision
 Premium pricing vs. Discount pricing
 in some cultures, such as in Japan, high prices can be a sign of quality
and luxury and are often seen as a status symbol

 brands like Rolex and Chanel are known for using premium pricing
strategies in Japan, where high prices are seen as a sign of luxury and
quality

 these companies often charge more for their products in countries with
high-income levels or strong demand

 in Western cultures, discount pricing and sales are common, and

consumers often expect to pay less than the original price

 brands like Walmart and Target rely on discount pricing strategies, with
 Local competition

 the local competition can impact pricing strategies, with prices

often being adjusted to be competitive with other
businesses in the area

 some cultures may be willing to pay more for organic, locally

sourced, or fair-trade products

 in the fast food industry, brands like McDonald's and Burger King
often adjust pricing to be competitive with local businesses in
different regions
International Marketing Mix:Place
 distribution in national markets such as the United Kingdom will probably involve goods
being moved in a chain from the manufacturer to wholesalers and onto retailers for
consumers to buy from

 in an overseas market there will be more parties involved because the goods need to be
moved around a foreign market where business practices will be different to national
markets

 in Japan there are approximately five different types of wholesaler involved in the
distribution chain

 businesses will need to investigate distribution chains for each country they would like
to operate in

 they will also need to investigate who they would like to sell their products and services
 Distribution channels: in Japan, brands like Sony and Panasonic
often rely on specialized distribution channels like electronic
superstores or department stores, whereas in the US, brands
like Best Buy and Walmart may use large-scale retail chains

 Geographic location: in rural areas, brands like Coca-Cola may

have to adjust their distribution strategies to reflect the lack of
infrastructure and limited availability of transportation options. A
French firm set up a timber mill in East Africa and was all set to
open the mill when the French realized that usually there was not
enough electrical power in the area to run the mill.

 Online presence: in China, brands like Alibaba and Taobao have

significant market share in the e-commerce space, while in the
US, Amazon and eBay dominate the online marketplace
 Franchise arrangements: in emerging markets, brands like KFC and Subway
may rely on franchise arrangements to expand their presence, while in more
mature markets, company-owned stores may be more common

 Retail environments: in Japan, department stores often offer high-end,

luxury products, while in India, street markets are popular for buying
clothing and accessories

 Delivery methods: in some cultures, home delivery is more common than in-
store purchases; in China, it is common to order food delivery to your home or
office

 Brand visibility: in India, brands like Coca-Cola and Pepsi may use street
vendors and small kiosks to increase brand visibility, while in the UK, TV and
print advertising may be more effective
International Marketing Mix: Promotion
 advertising messages in countries may have to be adapted because of language,
political climate, cultural attitudes and religious practices

 a promotional strategy in one country could cause offence in another

 every aspect of promotional detail will require research and planning one example is
the use of colour

 many organisations adapt promotion strategies to suit local markets as cultural

backgrounds and practices affect what appeals to consumers

 the level of media development and availability will also need to be taken into
account: Is commercial television well established in your host country? What is the
level of television penetration? How much control does the government have over
advertising on TV, radio and Internet? Is print media more popular than TV?
 sometimes the advertising campaign will need to be
adapted to local customs and preferences

 Kentucky Fried Chicken's main slogan in the United

States is It's finger-licking good!‘

 this slogan only makes sense when you eat the fried
chicken using your fingers

 in Thailand, however, it is not proper to use your

hands when eating, and the Bangkok KFC restaurant
offers knives and forks with the meal, which
everyone uses
 Procter & Gamble blundered in Japan when trying to sell “Camay” soap

 it seems that it aired a popular European television advertisement showing a

woman bathing

 in the ad, her husband enters the bathroom and touches her approvingly

 the Japanese, however, considered this behavior to be inappropriate and in poor

taste for television

 such ads are no longer used in Japan and P&G is now doing much better there

 Time magazine ran a Spanish-language ad in its Brazilian edition. Someone must

have forgotten that they speak Portuguese in Brazil, not Spanish!
 the “Marlboro” man projects a strong masculine image in the United States and
in Europe

 attempts to use it were unsuccessful in Hong Kong, where the totally urban people
did not identify at all with horseback riding in the countryside

 a firm at an international trade fair committed a different type of location error

 in order to keep people out of a restricted area of its booth, the company
displayed a sign depicting an open, flat hand with all fingers pointing up on a
swinging door

 to the company’s surprise, the idea backfired: the local people interpreted the
symbol to mean they should place their hands there and push the door open
 one laundry detergent company certainly wishes now that it had contacted a
few locals before it initiated its promotional campaign in the Middle East

 all of the company’s advertisements pictured soiled clothes on the left, its box
of soap in the middle, and clean clothes on the right

 but because in that area of the world people tend to read from the right to the
left, many potential customers interpreted the message to indicate the soap
actually soiled the clothes
 What problems might the following
cause in some markets? Why?
 the advertisement for pain killers that shows three
pictures from left to right:

 first, someone with a headache

 who is next seen taking the pain killer

 and, finally, smiling

 this advertisement would be unsuitable for
cultures in which people read from right to
left, since the message conveyed would be the
opposite of what was intended

a similar advertisement produced by Lucky

Goldstar showed a rice bowl on the left-hand
side of the page, and a satellite on the right
 a U.S. company attempting to conduct business in Britain

 the firm had effectively used the phrase “You can use no finer
napkin at your dinner table” in the United States and because
of economies of scale, etc., decided to use the same
commercials in England

 since the British word “napkin” or “nappy” actually means

“diaper,” the American firm was unknowingly advertising that
“You could use no finer diaper at your dinner table.”

 the ad was entertaining, but could hardly be expected to boost

sales greatly
 Mountain Bell experienced a problem when one of its
promotional photos depicted an executive talking on
the telephone with his feet propped up on his desk

 the photos, seen by Middle and Far Easterners, were

considered to be in poor taste

 to them, the display of the sole of the foot or shoe

is a terrible insult
 Social media marketing
 this involves promoting products or services on social media platforms like Facebook,
Twitter, and Instagram, more popular in Western countries, while WeChat and
Weibo are more popular in China

 McDonald's has used a variety of global campaigns to promote its brand, including the
“I'm Lovin' It” slogan and the “McDonald's and Me” campaign in Japan, which
featured a range of different menu items and encouraged customers to share their
experiences on social media

 Coca-Cola's “Share a Coke” campaign, which personalised Coke bottles with

people's names and encouraged customers to share photos on social media using the
hashtag #ShareaCoke
 Celebrity endorsements
 in Japan, celebrities are often used to endorse products and services,
while in the US, athletes and movie stars are commonly used

 Nike’s “Just Do It” slogan has become one of the most iconic and
recognizable slogans in advertising history; the company has also run global
campaigns featuring high-profile athletes like Michael Jordan and Serena
Williams

 in China basketball player Yao Ming, who is widely regarded as a national

hero in China, endorses for Reebok to promote their basketball products in
the Chinese market
 Influencer marketing
 this type of marketing is becoming more popular in Western
cultures, while in some Asian countries, it is still a relatively
new concept

 still a good example is L'Oreal's partnership with beauty

influencer Kim Dao, who has a large following in Japan, to
promote their products in the Japanese market
 Experiential marketing
 focuses on providing a unique experience to customers, is becoming more
popular in Western cultures

 Airbnb's “Night At” campaign, which offers overnight stays at unique and
exclusive locations like the Louvre Museum in Paris and the Great Wall of
China, provides customers with memorable experiences that promote the
brand
 Word-of-mouth
 in many cultures, recommendations from friends and family are highly valued, and
can be more effective than traditional advertising

 this involves building buzz and generating interest in a product or service through
word-of-mouth recommendations and reviews, which can vary based on cultural
attitudes towards social networks and interpersonal communication

 Yelp's user-generated reviews and ratings, which are based on personal

experiences and recommendations, provide customers with valuable information
and insights into local businesses and services
2. If they want to do business with me, then they'll have
to adapt to my culture.

 2. this is an ethnocentric approach, and is unlikely

to lead to success in business

 many opportunities will be missed if this is taken

into account

 the example of the use of the English language in

DaimlerChrysler illustrates this
 Ethnocentrism
 the belief that one’s own cultural group is superior to all other cultural groups

 one interesting place to see ethnocentrism is in world maps produced in different places

 most show their own country and culture centered in the middle of the world

 one Chinese teaching assistant reported: When I asked my students to draw a world map
in one intercultural communication class, we were all amazed to see that everybody
started from different places. American students started from the map of the United
States, Mexican students started from Mexico, and Chinese students started from China.
Students are often confused about the locations of other countries or continents, partly
because on the maps they are familiar with their own countries are always in the middle!

 but ethnocentrism can also be extreme, to the point that one cannot believe that another
culture’s values are equally good or worthy
 wetend to judge other cultures according to the beliefs,
values and traditions of our own group or culture

 wethen categorize groups other than ours as bad, weak,

immoral, stupid, crazy and so on

 ethnocentrism may be said to be almost universal

 members of nearly all the world’s cultures regard their

own way of life as being ‘better’ than even closely
related neighbours
3. „When in Rome, do as the Romans do.”

 3. this is a commonly used phrase, and is useful in that

it stresses the importance of considering the culture
of the host

 inpractice, culture is so deeply rooted that it is not

possible to change one's original culture and take on a
new one
4. Today I'm dealing with the Americans, tomorrow with a
group from Japan. I can't possibly learn all I need to know
about all the cultures I have to deal with.
 4. although this is true, intercultural training
can sensitize you to the sorts of factors that may
be influencing communication
 5. What I need when I go abroad is a list of dos and don'ts.

 5. simple lists of dos and don'ts are of rather limited

help in making communication successful

 while they are appealing to the busy business person,

really effective intercultural interaction requires more
than a knowledge of a few basic facts
 Perception
 Look at the picture. What do you see in it?
 the picture, known as Rubin's vase, is a famous example of
how perception works

 it can be seen as a vase, or as two heads opposite each

other

 most people can't see both at the same time, so some see
the vase first, and some the heads

 the fact that people perceive the same thing in different

ways is particularly important in intercultural communication

 the way we perceive is culturally determined, and the

general lack of awareness of this is another barrier to
 the vase/profile illusion was made famous by Danish
psychologist Edgar Rubin in 1915

 itsorigin, however, is much older: examples can be

found in 18th century French prints, in which the
portraits not only define a vase, but the profiles
themselves differ
 Recognition

 twogroups of children experienced equal exposure to

a bullfight and a baseball scene

 theMexican children recognized the bullfight most

frequently and the American children recognized the
baseball game most often

 theinfluence of the children’s cultures on what they

recognized was reflected in their perceptions
My Wife and My Mother-in-Law (1915)
Jazz lady
Sad? Mad?
Impossible trident/Blivet
 the influence of culture and environment can have an effect on our visual
perception

 this theory was first explored by Robert Laws, a Scottish missionary working
in Malawi, Africa, during the late 1800's

 what you see in the picture will largely depend on where you live in the
world

 people from East Africa said the woman was balancing a box or metal can on
her head

 in a culture containing few angular visual cues, the family is seen sitting
under a tree

 Westerners, on the other hand, are accustomed to the corners and boxlike
shapes of architecture

 they are more likely to place the family indoors and to interpret the
rectangle above the woman's head as a window through which shrubbery can
 we make mistakes in perception and we see things negatively that the speaker in
his or her environment would consider totally non- confrontational

 a good example is direct and indirect criticism

 in China, Japan and, to a lesser extent, South Korea, it is important not to criticize
anyone directly in order to save the ‘face’ of the person being criticized

 we often assume other people experience the same physical, intellectual and
emotional reactions as we do

 we believe that what is pleasing or distasteful to us is pleasing or distasteful to

others

 we therefore need to understand why this is so and at least to recognize our

differences of perception
Stereotypes
 Stereotypes
 generalizations of people groups based on past experiences, which
are deep-rooted in the psyche of the people

 a stereotype is a fixed idea or image that many people have of a

particular type of person or thing, but which is not true in reality

 the word comes from printing, where it was used to describe the
printing plate used to produce the same image over and over again
 The origin of the word "stereotype"
 in the early history of US. newspapers, more than 100 years ago, cartoons were
extremely popular

 the cartoonist's daily cartoon was distributed by sending a papier mache mirror
image of the cartoon through the postal service

 a stereotype was made of the cartoon by converting the cartoon to lead type,
and the cartoon was published in the local newspaper

 the cartoons often featured exaggerated images of Uncle Sam, John Bull, the
cunning Asian, bloated politicians, and other social figures

 gradually, these cartoon images came to be called "stereotypes"

 a stereotype is a generalization about some group of people that

oversimplifies their culture
 generalizationsand categories are necessary,
but when they are too rigid they can be a
barrier to the effective interpretation of a
situation

 in intercultural communication, in particular, it is

vital to distinguish between what is part of a
person's cultural background and what is part
of their personality
 in Public Opinion, Walter Lippmann (1922) spoke of "the pictures in our heads,"
and the role of the mass media in forming such stereotypes

 one of the most shameful episodes in U.S. history resulted from the stereotypes
depicting the enemy during World War II

 anti-Japanese propaganda convinced many people in the United States that the
Japanese were cunning, tricky, and willing to fight to the death to win

 the negative stereotype was mainly formed by news accounts carried by the
media about warfare in the Pacific theater, by cartoons and posters, and by
interpersonal communication influenced by the predominant beliefs of the time

 Japanese-Americans were forced to leave their homes, their businesses, and

their possessions behind because the stereotype portrayed them as threats to
their own country
 stereotypescan be either positive ("black men are
good at basketball") or negative (“blacks are lazy
people")

 butmost stereotypes tend to make us feel superior in

some way to the person or group being stereotyped

 stereotypes ignore the uniqueness of individuals by

painting all members of a group with the same brush
 All white Americans are obese, lazy, and dim-witted. (Homer Simpson is the
personification of this stereotype)

 Mexican stereotypes suggest that all Mexicans are lazy and came into America illegally.

 All Arabs and Muslims are terrorists.

 All people who live in England have bad teeth.

 Italian or French people are the best lovers.

 All Blacks outside of the United States are poor.

 All Jews are greedy.

 All Asians are good at math. All Asians like to eat rice and drive slow.
 Aferim! (2015)
 The Priest: Each nation has its purpose. The Jews, to
cheat, the Turks, to do harm, us Romanians to love and
suffer like Christ. And each has their habits. Hebrews
reads a lot, Greeks talks a lot, Turks has many wives,
Arabs has many teeth, Germans smokes a lot, Hungarians
eats a lot, Russians drinks a lot, English thinks a lot,
French likes fashion a lot, Armenians are lazy, Circassians
wears much lace, Italians lies a lot, Serbians cheats a lot,
Gypsies get beaten! Gypsies must be slaves.
 The following list provides a few examples of people or groups that are often
stereotyped (e.g. in the mass media, films):

 ■ cities (Beijingers, Bostonians, Parisians, Singaporeans, Berliners)

 ■ regions within countries (Newfies in Canada, Northerners, Yorkshire folk)
 ■ dialects (Ebonics in the U.S., Yakuzas in Japan)
 ■ race (African Americans, Caucasians, Hispanics, Native Hawaiians)
 ■ religion (Atheists, Buddhists, Christians, Jews, Muslims, Hindus, Sikhs)
 ■ ethnic groups (Chinese, black Africans, Arabs, Hispanics)
 ■ national groups (U.S. Americans, Iranians, Irish, Italians, North Koreans)
 ■ age (youngsters, adolescents, teenagers, middle-aged, senior citizens)
 ■ vocations (teachers, garbage collectors, clergy, newscasters, football players)
 ■ social class (poor, white collar, blue collar, upper middle class, the corporate rich)
 ■ physical attributes (obese, anorexic, dwarfs, tall, jocks)
 ■ disabilities (deafness, blindness, mentally disabled)
 ■ gender (masculinity, femininity)
 Nationality stereotypes
 generalizations about cultures or nationalities can be a source of pride, anger
or simply bad jokes

 some people say that in all stereotype there is some basis in reality, as they
don‘t develop in vacuum

 nationality stereotype is a system of culture-specific beliefs connected with

the nationality of a person

 this system includes beliefs concerning those properties of human beings that
may vary across nations, such as appearance, language, food, habits,
psychological traits, attitudes, values etc
 fair
 honest
 frank
 mechanical
 direct (truth before tact)
 conformist
 logical
 time-dominated, have never been late for anything in their lives
 tendency to complicate
 serious
 organized
 strong sense of duty
 no sense of humor
 drink beer all day
 well known for their use of sarcasm and irony
 intelligent and articulate
 swear all day long
 think they are the better of you
 tolerate eccentric people
 lousy food
 smoke cigar or pipe
 drink tea and eat crumpets
 are soccer enthusiasts
 bad teeth and hygiene
 talk posh
 heavy drinkers
 obsession to survive
 opportunism
 manipulative
 love to celebrate
 evasive techniques of action
 tendency to blame others
 unpredictability
 social corruption
 nepotism
 self-importance
 mistrust police and government
 nationalists
 obsession to survive
 impatience
 energy
 morality
 opinionated views
 modernity
 shrewd
 careful and obsessed with money
 argue over the price of anything
 usually do commerce or finance related jobs
 strong family relations

 don‘t speak English
 irresponsible
 are rude
 take a lot of time off and are being workshy
 selfish
 never bathe
 smoke heavily
 are rather weak and cowardly, always surrender in
war
 always wear a beret
 eat frogs' legs
 men are perceived as being very romantic, good lovers
 overly patriotic
 ignorant about the world
 obsessed with work
 racism and racialism
 obsessed with guns
 individualistic; they like to go it alone without checking with the head office
 introduce informality immediately: take their jackets off, use first names
 use humor whenever they can, even though their partner fails to understand it
 take risks but make a definite (financial) plan which must be adhered to
 opportunistic, quick to take chances
 persistent: there is always a solution
 materialistic
 ambitious
 progressive
 efficient
 straight-forward
 fast food eaters
 disciplined
 organized
 technology-lover
 extroverted
 competent
 short
 workaholics
 perverted
 raw-fish eaters
 suicidal
In Heaven…

the mechanics are …………….

the chefs are ……………….
the police are ………………..
the lovers are …………………
and everything is organized by ………….
 In Heaven…

the mechanics are German

the chefs are French
the police are British
the lovers are Italian
and everything is organized by the Swiss
In Hell…

the mechanics are ……………

the police are ………………
the chefs are ……………..
the lovers are ………………
and everything is organized by the …….....
In Hell…

the mechanics are French

the police are German
the chefs are British
the lovers are Swiss
and everything is organized by the
Italians.
 Racial stereotypes

 the Asians are stereotyped to be good at mathematics

 the blacks are stereotyped to be good at athletics and dancing

 these can be regarded as positive stereotypes

 other stereotype like "All Muslims are terrorists" is a negative

stereotype
 in Disney’s 1941 film Dumbo, the leader of a pack of crows is named Jim Crow

 the poor and seemingly uneducated crows use slang and black vernacular while
calling each other “brotha”

 that portrayal drew scrutiny for stereotypical depiction of African-Americans

 “I’d be done see’* about everything, when I see an elephant fly,” the jive-talking
crows sing
 Jungle Book (1968): The character of King Louie, an ape with poor
linguistic skills, sings in a Dixieland jazz style and is shown as lazy

 the character has been criticised for being a racist caricature of African-
Americans

 some critics have pointed out that the apes are asking Mowgli to teach them
how to be humans, which is allegedly an allegory on black people wanting to
be like white people
 the Siamese cats, Si and Am, in the 1955 Lady and the Tramp used stereotypical
Asian speech and had features to resemble Asians

 they were villainous and deceitfully sneaky, spoke broken English and lacked
individuality, all stereotypes about Asians in the US coming out of World War II and the
Korean War
 The Aristocats (1970): A Siamese cat called Shun Gon, voiced by a white
actor, is drawn as a racist caricature of an Asian person

 he plays the piano with chopsticks

 in Aladdin the Middle East is shown as a brutal place full of brutal people

 the original lyrics of the opening song, "Arabian Nights," actually included the
lines "I come from a land/From a faraway place/Where they cut off your
ear/If they don't like your face/It's barbaric, but hey, it's home." The words
were changed in 1993 after being deemed racist

 the depictions of the characters are by and large ignorant and backward-
thinking: men in the movie are shown as sword-swallowers, coal-walkers,
snake-charmers, crooks or swindlers; women are confined (in revealing
clothes) to the home to do laundry
 the 1953 animated film Peter Pan featured the song What Made the Red Man Red in
reference to Native Americans

 a very red and obese American Indian with two teeth is shown on screen while a
peace pipe is passed around

 a group of Indians dance among teepees while Peter Pan wears a headdress
 Political stereotypes
 have been deep rooted in the mindset of the general public, because of the
general interpretation of the policies of a political party

 political stereotypes include:

 all democrats are liberals

 all republicans are racists

 Religion-based party are hypocrite

 all democrats are stupid

 all republicans are against the "working man"

 Gender stereotypes
 the depiction of men in media strongly suggests that they are strong, adventurous and
active paving way for them to be stereotyped in that manner

 the depiction of women suggests that they are good at performing household chores
and taking care of their appearances and they are eventually stereotyped by these
traits

 Women are good cooks

 Men are strong, adventurous and brave
 Women are in charge of the house
 Men are in charge of finances
What do you think is happening here?
 Debbie : You’re more than just brother and sister, aren’t you?
 Maria : Yes, we’re twins. I was born first, my brother came few minutes later. My mom
says it’s because I’m a girl, and girls should go first.
 Mario : I let her go first. Italian boys are always polite.
 Debbie : Ok..now I have a riddle for you both to solve.
 Mario : I love riddles!
 Debbie : A boy and his father were badly injured in an accident. The child needed an
immediate operation. He was wheeled into the operating room. The surgeon entered and
said, “ Sorry, I cant operate this child. He is my son”. So, who is the surgeon?
 Maria : How can that be? Didn’t you say that the father was also badly injured?
 Debbie : Yes. Badly injured.
 Mario : Maybe the surgeon was his step father.
 Debbie : Nice try, but that’s not it.
 Mario : Well, I give up.
 Debbie : What are you both assuming that is keeping you from solving this riddle?
 1. Stereotypes can lead us to believe that a commonly-held belief is actually
true, when in fact it is not.


 2. Stereotypes may compel us to only accept information that is in accord with

our previous perceptions of a particular outgroup

 3. Stereotypes are difficult to change, in part, because many were formed in

childhood through messages from people we love and respect, as well as
through portrayals in the media (e.g. TV, movies). Therefore, we may fail to
modify the stereotype even when it no longer fits with our actual observations
and experience.

 4. When we stereotype we assume that all members of a group possess the

same characteristics and we fail to recognize or acknowledge individual
variations.

 5. Stereotypes generally reduce people to a single aspect of their identities

(e.g. trait, characteristic or dimension), overlooking the dynamic and
 positive sides of stereotypes are:
 People rely on stereotypes everyday to help them function in society.
 To allow people to quickly process new information about an event or person.
 To organize people‘s past experiences.
 To meaningfully assess differences between individuals and groups.
 To make predictions about other people‘s behavior.

 negative sides of stereotypes are :

 Oversimplified generalization
 Breeding ground for errant generalizations.
 Serve as a major source of disinformation about others.
 May easily conceal or feed into prejudice, racism, sexism, and other forms of
bigotry.
 Interpretation

 What is the communication problem here?

A Japanese businessman is negotiating with a

Norwegian partner. The Japanese says that the deal
will be very difficult. The Norwegian asks how her
company can help to solve the problems. The
Japanese is puzzled by the question.
 Gudykunst suggests three ways of checking our
interpretation or other people's behaviour

 Perception checking
 the aim of perception checking is to ensure that our interpretation
of the other person's behaviour is what he or she meant it to be

 first we have to describe what we thought the other person meant,

before asking if this interpretation is correct

 even this process is culturally determined, and for people from

some cultures could be too direct

 'If you are an INDIVIDUALIST communicating with a COLLECTIVIST,

it is important to keep in mind that collectivists may not feel
comfortable answering direct questions. In this case you may have
to ask your perception checking questions more indirectly'
 Listening effectively

 it is important to distinguish between hearing (the

physical process) and listening, which involves much
more attention, and includes absorbing new
information, checking it with what you already know,
categorizing it, selecting ideas, and predicting what is
coming next

 activelistening involves showing the speaker that we

are involved in the conversation, trying to
understand, and to understand them better
 Giving feedback
 this is the verbal or non-verbal response to others

 be specific

 separate the feedback from the person

 present the problem as a mutual one

 mix negative with positive feedback

 provide feedback at an appropriate time


Are the statements true or false?
 1. Japanese are coming into contact with people from other countries more often these days.
 2. Intercultural communication only involves communication between people from different countries.
 3. A study about what techniques Americans use to persuade and what techniques Japanese use to persuade would
involve intercultural communication.
 4. International communication is communication between individuals from different nations.
 5. A program preparing Japanese workers to go to their company's office in England would be taking a culturespecific
approach.
 6. When the sender and receiver are from the same culture, the receiver is likely to interpret the message the way
the sender intends, because they share similar values, beliefs, expectations, etc.
 7. When cultures are very different, there is a greater likelihood that a message will be misinterpreted.
 8. Because their language, religion, philosophy, and social attitudes are so different, and American farmer and a
Chinese farmer would not have anything in common.
 9. Perceptions of beauty are the same in all cultures.
 10. Though beliefs and values vary within a culture, certain beliefs and values are held in common in one culture.
 11. When there are different expectations for behavior, there can be difficulties between people of different
cultures.
 12. Families in the United States and Japan are very different in the way they communicate.
 13. The family and the school are both important social institutions for passing along culture.
 14. Language is not an obvious cultural barrier.
 15. Language is not a barrier to communication for people with the same native language.
 16. We tend to think a lot about how we communicate nonverbally.
