Module 05

Active Filters
Filter classifications, frequency and impedance
scaling, First and second order Low-pass and High
pass filter designs, Band-pass filter, Notch filter.
• Filters are electronic circuits that remove any unwanted components or
features from a signal.
• Widely used in Instrumentation, Electronics and Communication Systems
especially in Signal and Image processing systems.
• Filter is mainly classified into two types:
– Active Filter
– Passive Filter
Active Filters
• Filter Circuit which consists of active components like Transistors and Op-
amps in addition to Resistors and Capacitors is called as Active Filter.
Passive Filters
• Filter circuit which consists of passive components such as Resistors,
Capacitors and Inductors is called as Passive Filter. The operating frequency
range of the filter banks on the components used to build the circuit.
• Based on the operating frequency
– Low Pass Filter
– High Pass Filter
– Band Pass Filter
– Band Stop Filter
– All Pass Filter
• Low pass filter
– It is a type of Filter which attenuates all the frequencies
above the cut-off frequencies. It provides a constant
output (gain) from zero to cut-off frequency.
• High pass filter
– It is a type of Filter which attenuates all the frequencies
below the cut-off frequencies. It provides a constant output
(gain) above the cut-off frequency.
• Band pass filter
– It is a type of filter which allows specific Band of
frequencies to pass through and all other frequencies
outside the band are attenuated.
• Band Stop Filters
– Specific Band of frequencies gets rejected and allows
passing of frequencies outside the Band.
• Frequency and Impedance Scaling
– The simple low-pass filter shown in the figure has a cutoff
frequency of ωC = 1/(RC) = 1 rad/s. It is called a
normalized filter because its cutoff frequency is 1 rad/s and
because its component values are unity (ohm-farad).
• Suppose a filter is required that can be constructed from
practical components, but with a cutoff frequency of 1000 Hz.
Since ωC is proportional to the reciprocal of the RC product,
the frequency can be increased by reducing R, C, or both. The
multiplying factor is the ratio of the normalized
frequency f = ω/2π = 1/2π Hz, to the desired frequency of
1000 Hz. The new resistance will be
• R
• The design involves completely impractical component values
of R1 = 0.000159 Ω and C1 = 1 F. Fortunately, the frequency is
proportional to the reciprocal of the product of R1 and C1; thus
if one is increased and the other decreased by the same
amount, the frequency will remain unchanged. Consequently,
a more practical component selection can be obtained by
converting the initial C1 value of 1 F to 10 nF by dividing by
108. To keep the cutoff frequency at 1000 Hz, R1 must be
multiplied by 108 to give 15,900 Ω.
 Given a filter that has a cutoff frequency of fC, change
to a new cutoff frequency fn as follows:
Frequency scaling
Either multiply all resistor values by fC/fn or multiply all
capacitor values by fC/fn
Multiply all resistors by k and divide all capacitors by k,
where k is any suitable constant that will bring the
impedances to the desired levels.
Impedance scaling Note that k can be greater or less than unity, so that R's
can be increased and C's decreased or vice versa as
desired. Note that the cutoff frequency fC is not altered
by impedance scaling.
First order Low Pass Filter
• Using Voltage divider rule

Overall transfer function

Let

The gain of the filter as a function of frequency

• The magnitude and gain of the LPF
• At low frequency

• At

• At
High pass filter
The voltage at the non-inverting
terminal is

Output voltage is given by

The closed loop gain of the op-amp is

The overall transfer function is

obtained as
The magnitude of the frequency response
• Applications
• A Notch filter is generally used in communication systems,
Instrumentation and control systems, and the biomedical field
to eliminate the interference.
• It is highly preferred in image and signal processing to reject
unwanted frequencies i.e. noise.
• It is used in audio signal processing, for removing a specific
range of unwanted frequencies i.e. noise or hum.
• It is used in telephone technology, Digital Subscriber Line DSL,
and other internet services as a line noise reducer to reduce
unwanted interference.
• It is used in guitar amplifiers, instrument amplifiers, acoustic
guitar, mandolin, bass instrument amplifier, and PA systems to
reduce a specific humming sound.
• It is used in medical field applications i.e. in ECG
(Electrocardiogram) measurements, to eliminate dc component
 D/A
CONVERSION
TECHNIQUES

1
 D/A CONVERSION
TECHNIQUES
Basics of DAC
 DAC: The process of converting any digital form of the
signal into analog form is called DAC

 The DAC accepts n-bit binary word D as the input and

combined with reference voltage VR to give an analog
signal.

 Various types of DAC techniques are

 Weighted resistor DAC
 R-2R Ladder
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UNIT - VII ECE204 – Analog Circuit
 D/A CONVERSION
TECHNIQUES
Basics of DAC
 DAC: The process of converting any digital form of the
signal into analog form is called DAC

 The DAC accepts n-bit binary word D as the input and

combined with reference voltage VR to give an analog
signal.

 Various types of DAC techniques are

 Weighted resistor DAC
 R-2R Ladder
1
UNIT - VII ECE204 – Analog Circuit
 D/A CONVERSION
TECHNIQUES
Basics of DAC

1
UNIT - VII
 D/A CONVERSION
TECHNIQUES
Basics of DAC
 For voltage output of the DAC, the D/A converter is
mathematically described as,
Vo = K VFS (d12-1 + d22-2 + d32-3 +………+ dn2-n)
where Vo = Output voltage
VFS = Full scale output voltage
K = Scaling factor (normally unity)
d1d2…dn = n-bit binary fractional word with decimal point located at the left

D1=MSB with a weight of VFS/2 & dn =LSB with a weight of VFS/2n

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 D/A CONVERSION
TECHNIQUES
Problems
 The basic step of a 9-bit DAC is 10.3mV. If 000000000
represents 0V what output is produced if the input is
101101111
Vo = resolution x D
The output for the input is,
=10.3mV(1x28 + 0x27 + 1x26 + 1x25 + 0x24 + 1x23
+ 1x22 + 1x21 + 1x20)
=10.3mV (367)
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 D/A CONVERSION
TECHNIQUES
Problems
 What output voltage would be produced by a D/A
Converter whose output range is 0 to 10V and whose
binary number is

(i). 1for 2-bit DAC)

V0=10V(1x(1/2) + 0x(1/4))=5V

(ii).0 (for 4-bit DAC)

V0=10V(0x(1/2) + 1x(1/4) + 1x(1/8) + 0x(1/16)) =3.75V
(iii). 10111100 (for a 8-bit DAC)
V0= 10V( 1x(1/2) + 0x(1/4) + 1x(1/8) + 1x(1/16) + 1x(1/32)
+ 1x(1/64) + 0 +0)
V0= 7.34V 2
ECE204 – Analog Circuit
D/A CONVERSION
TECHNIQUES
R/2R ladder DAC

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D/A CONVERSION
TECHNIQUES
R/2R ladder DAC

3
D/A CONVERSION
TECHNIQUES
R/2R ladder DAC

3
D/A CONVERSION
TECHNIQUES
R/2R ladder DAC

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 D/A CONVERSION
TECHNIQUES
R/2R ladder DAC

And those 2R parallel 2R resistors make equivalent register of R

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 D/A CONVERSION
TECHNIQUES
R/2R ladder DAC

Now for N2 same thing happen B3 series with 2R and parallel with
R + R resistors. It will also make equivalent resistor R at N3.
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A/D CONVERSION
TECHNIQUES
Basics of ADC

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 A/D CONVERSION
TECHNIQUES
Types of ADC
 ADCs are classified into two groups according to their conversion techniques:
Direct type and Integrating type ADCs.
 Direct type ADC compares a given analog signal with the internally generated
equivalent signal. This group includes
 Flash type converter
 Successive approximation type converter
 Counter type converter
 Tracking or servo converter

 Integrating type ADCs perform integration by first changing the analog input
signal to a linear function of time or frequency then to a digital code.
 Dual slope ADC
 Charge balancing ADC

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FLASH TYPE
ADC
 FLASH TYPE ADC
 The flash ADC uses comparators that compare reference voltages
with the analogue input voltage.

 When the analogue voltage exceeds the reference voltage for a

given comparator, a High is generated.

 In general (2n -1) comparators are required. So for an 8-bit

conversion 255 comparators are required.

 However the flash ADC provides a fast conversion time because of

the parallel process.

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 FLASH TYPE ADC

 Flash type ADC consist of,

1. Voltage Divider circuit

2. Op-amp as a Comparator

3. Priority encoder

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FLASH TYPE ADC