Basic Concepts of Engineering Thermodynamics

• At the end of this class, students will be able to-

• Explain the concepts like thermodynamic system, control volume, micro and
macroscopic points of view, pure and working substance, thermodynamic
property, state, path, process, cycle, thermodynamic equilibrium, point and
path functions, work, temperature, heat
• State Zeroth Law of thermodynamics
• Compare Heat and Work
• Calculate work and heat for the specified conditions

What is thermodynamics -Video

Basic Engineering Thermodynamics
 What is Thermodynamics?

IC Engine Jet Engine Steam Power Plant

Fuel- Combustion- Heat- Q

Work – W
Energy - E

Thermodynamics, science of the relationship

between heat, work, and energy. In broad
terms, thermodynamics deals with the
transfer of energy from one place to another
Air-conditioner and from one form to another.
Refrigerator
 A Brief History
• English engineer Thomas Savery created
a steam engine to pump water from
mines- 1689.
• Thomas Newcomen, another English
engineer, developed an improved version
by 1712.
• Scottish inventor and mechanical
engineer James Watt made the most
significant improvements, allowing the Thomas Savery Steam Engine Newcomen Steam Engine
steam engine to be used in many
industrial settings.
• In 1775 Watt formed an engine-building
and engineering partnership with
manufacturer Matthew Boulton
James Watt Steam Engine
 A Brief History

Helmoltz
A Brief History

Joule

Lord Kelvin
A Brief History

Max Planck
Approaches to Study of Thermodynamics
Macroscopic(Classical)/Microscopic(Statistical)
Thermodynamics
 Approaches to Study of Thermodynamics

• Thermodynamics
• Macroscopic Thermodynamics(Classical Thermodynamics)
• Microscopic Thermodynamics(Statistical Thermodynamics)
• In classical thermodynamics it is disregarded that the matter is matter is made
up of molecules. The behaviour of the matter can be observed and measured
experimentally
• In statistical thermodynamics, it is considered that the matter is made up of
molecules. The behaviour of matter is based on the behaviour of individual
molecules.
• The behaviour of matter as observed in classical thermodynamics can be
predicted using statistical thermodynamics
Classical Thermodynamics Study-System Approach

System-region of
Inputs Outputs
interest
 What Questions can be Answered in Thermodynamics
• How much
Fuel • How does this work?
Fuel Gas • how much fuel is burnt?
• How much heat is produced?
• How much work is produced?
• How much work got converted into
Thrust?
Thrust • How much heat lost?
• How much work is given to compressor?
• How much heat is lost in exhaust gases?
• What is the efficiency of the system?
Heat • What are the constituents of exhaust
Air gases?
• Thermodynamics answers all these
questions when analyzed the Gas
Turbine as a system
 Thermodynamic System System Boundary

• The first step in every thermodynamic system surroundings

analysis is to specify the system.
• A thermodynamic system is defined as System
a quantity of matter or a region in
space upon which attention is
concentrated in the analysis of a
problem
• Everything external to the system is
called the “surroundings” or the
“environment”.
• The system is separated from the
surroundings by the system boundary
may be either fixed or moving.
• A system and its surroundings together
comprise a “universe” surroundings
 Types of Thermodynamic System
• Type of Systems
• Closed, Open, Isolated

• Closed System
• It is a system of fixed mass.
• There is no mass transfer across the
system boundary
• There may be energy transfer into
or out of the system.

Heat
work
 Types of Thermodynamic System
• Open System
• The open system is one in which
matter crosses the boundary of
the system
• There may be energy transfer also.
• The mass within the system may
or may not vary with time.
• Most of the engineering devices Fuel Fuel
are generally open system. Gas
mass

work Heat Thrust

Air Heat
 Types of Thermodynamic System

Isolated System No Mass

flow
• It is one in which there is
no interaction between the
No work
system and the No Heat
Interaction
surroundings. It is of fixed Interaction
mass and energy and there
is no mass or energy
transfer across the system
boundary.
 Control Volume
• For thermodynamic analysis of an open system, in which there is a flow of mass
into and out of the system, attention is focused on a certain volume in space,
known as the control volume, bounded by a surface called the control surface.
• Matter as well as energy can cross the control surface.
• There is no difference between control volume and open system
 Pure Substance
• A pure substance is a substance of constant
chemical composition throughout its mass. It is a
one-component system. It may exist in one or
more phases.
• Every substance exists in any one of the three
phases. Solid, liquid and gas. For example water
is a pure substance. It may exist in the solid
phase as ice, in the liquid phase as water and in
the gaseous phase as steam.
• The phase is defined as a quantity of matter
homogeneous throughout in chemical Phases of Matter
composition and physical structure.
• A system consisting of a single phase is called a
homogeneous system, while a system consisting
of more than one phase is known as a
heterogeneous system.
• Air is not a pure substance but it is a mixture
 Working Substance

• A fluid medium which is

responsible for energy
transfer
• Air
• Gas
• Steam
• Water

Working substance and phase change

 Thermodynamic Properties
• A property is any quantity which can be
used to specify the state of a
thermodynamic system or “A property is
any observable characteristic of a
system”. It is a measurable quantity
Temperature Pressure
• Every system has certain characteristics
by which its physical condition may be
described, eg., volume, temperature,
pressure, etc. Such characteristics are
called properties of the system.

Volume
 Thermodynamic Properties
• Properties may be of two types. Intensive properties are independent of the size of the
system, eg., pressure, temperature, density, etc. Extensive properties are related to size
of the system eg., volume, energy, etc. Extensive properties per unit mass, are intensive
properties, eg., specific volume, specific energy, etc.

Thermodynamic Property

Intensive Property-
Extensive Property- dependent
Independent of size of the
on size of the system
system

Specific energy is energy per unit

mass. It is used to quantify
thermodynamic properties of
Mass and Volume substances such as specific
internal energy, specific enthalpy
 Thermodynamic Properties
• Properties can also be classified into extrinsic property and intrinsic property.
Extrinsic property can be specified with respect to a frame of reference, eg.,
displacement, velocity, energy, etc. Intrinsic property is independent of frame of
reference eg., volume, mass, etc.

Thermodynamic Property

Extrinsic Property Intrinsic Property

d
X0 P
Reference
m
Potential Energy =mgh h
Reference
 Air Properties


 Definitions
• STATE
• Properties specify the state of a system.
When all the properties of a system
have definite values, the system is said
to exist at a definite state. For example,
if pressure and volume of a system are Representation of the state of a system
known, the state of the system can be
represented on a coordinate system.
Therefore, properties are the co-
ordinates to describe the state of a
system.
• CHANGE OF STATE
Change of state
• A system is said to have undergone a
change of state when at least one of
its properties changes its value
 Definitions
• EQUATION OF STATE
• The state of a system can be represented as a
point on a co-ordinate system with
thermodynamic properties as co-ordinate axis. It
is, therefore obvious that thermodynamic state
can also be defined completely by an equation
involving thermodynamic properties such that
f (P,V,T) = 0
which may be called an equation of state of a
system
 Definitions

• PATH
• Path is the complete series of states
assumed by a system during change of
state.
• PROCESS
• A change of state of a system is said to be
the process if in addition to the end
states the path of the system is
described.
• CYCLE
• A cycle is a process of a system whose
end states are identical.
 Thermodynamic Equilibrium
• A system is said to exist in a state of
thermodynamic equilibrium when no change in
any macroscopic property is registered, if the
system is isolated from its surroundings.
• Thermodynamic studies mainly the properties
of physical systems that are found in
equilibrium state.
• A system will be in a state of thermodynamic
equilibrium, if the conditions for the following
three types of equilibrium are satisfied.
a). Mechanical equilibrium No Temperature Gradient
b). Chemical equilibrium No Pressure Gradient
No Chemical potential Gradient
c). Thermal equilibrium
 Thermodynamic Equilibrium

• A system is said to be in mechanical equilibrium, if

there is no unbalanced force within the system or
between the system and its surroundings. If an
unbalanced force exists, either the system alone, or
both the system and the surroundings will undergo a
change of state till mechanical equilibrium in attained.
• A system is said to be in chemical equilibrium, if there is
no chemical reaction or transfer of matter from one
part of the system to another takes place.
• Suppose a system is already in mechanical and chemical
equilibrium and it is separated from its surroundings by
a diathermic wall (which allows heat), and if there is no
spontaneous change in any property of the system, the
system is said to exist in thermal equilibrium.
• When the condition for any one of the three types of
equilibrium are not satisfied, a system is said to be in a
non-equilibrium state.
 Quasi-Static Process

• A quasi-static process is
what which is a locus of all
the equilibrium states
passed through by a
system when it executes a
process.
 Point and Path Function

• Point Function
• Thermodynamic properties like volume,
temperature, pressure, etc., are point functions, a
name arises from the fact that for a given point on a
coordinate system, the states is fixed, and thus there
is a definite value of each property corresponding to
this point. The differentials of point functions are
exact differentials, and the integration is simply

 dV  V
1
2  V1
P
1

• Thus, we can speak if the volume in state 2 and the

volume in state1, and change in volume depends 2
only on the initial and final states.
A quantity which is path independent is a property of
the system-point dependent (state) V2-V1 V
 Point and Path Function

• Path Function
• On the other hand, the
magnitude of some
interactions(like work, heat
which will be dealt later)
depend on the path followed.
The differentials of path
functions are in exact
differentials. The symbol ‘d’ is
used for exact differential A quantity which is path dependent is not a property
of the system
and ‘’ is used for inexact Path functions have inexact differentials
differential.
-
 Concept of Continuum

• From the macroscopic point of view, we

are always concerned with volumes
which are very large compared to
molecular dimensions. Even a very small
volume of a system is assumed to
contain a large number of molecules so
that statistical averaging is meaningful
and a property value can be assigned to
it. Disregarding the behaviour of
individual molecules, matter is here
treated as continuous.

• The concept continuum looses its

validity when the size of the system is
smaller than the intermolecular distance
 Thermostatics
• The science of thermodynamics deals with In thermodynamics, thermostatics
systems existing in thermodynamic equilibrium refers to aspects of
states which are specific by properties. Infinitely thermodynamics concerned with
slow quasi-static processes executed by systems thermal equilibrium
are only meaningful in thermodynamic plots. The
Thermostatics is sometimes
name Thermodynamics is said to be misnomer, synonymously with the
since it does not deal with the dynamics of heat, “thermodynamics of equilibrium”
which is non quasi-static-Thermo-statics or equilibrium thermodynamics.

• Most of the real processes are dynamic and non

quasi-static although the initial and final states of
the system might be in equilibrium. Such
processes can be successfully dealt with by the
subject-Hence Thermodynamics
 Idea of Temperature
• It is one’s day to day experience that a body, if touched
either appears to be hot or cold
• on the other hand, if a hot and a cold body are brought
into contact, then something flows from hot body to
cold body. This decreases the hotness of hot body and
warms up the cold body.
• However, the idea of hotness or coldness is relative.
For example, let there be two bodies having different
but higher hotness as compared to the observer’s
fingers. Let him first touch the hotter body and
immediately after it the second body; the second body
will appear to be cold to him, because the hotness of
the finger has changed during the first process.
• These facts necessitate the existence of something
which can express the “hotness” of the body. This
“something” is a property of the system and is the
central idea of temperature.
 Thermal Equilibrium
• To understand the principle of equality of
temperature, consider a body at high
temperature being brought into contact with
another body relatively at low temperature.
• This causes heat to flow and, in turn, to change
the various physical properties, e.g., volume,
electric resistance, etc. The decrease in most of
the properties occur in hot body and the reverse
in cold body. This continues till a limit is reached
after which there is no change in these
properties.
• Then, the temperature of the two bodies
becomes equal and the bodies are said to be
thermal equilibrium.
 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
• Statement: Two systems in thermal equilibrium
with a third are in thermal equilibrium with each
other.
• Diathermic Wall and Adiabatic Wall
• Thermometer is used for the measurement of
Temperature
• Thermometric Property:
• In order to obtain a quantitative measure of
temperature, a reference body is used, and a certain
physical characteristic of this body which changes with
temperature is selected. The changes in the selected
characteristic may be taken as an indication of change
in temperature. The selected characteristic is called
the thermometric property, and the reference body
which is used in the determination of temperature is
called the thermometer.
 Thermometer & Thermometric Property
• There are five different kinds of thermometer, each with its own thermometric
property

Thermometer Thermometric property Symbol

1. Constant volume gas thermometer Pressure P

2. Constant pressure gas thermometer Volume V
3. Electric resistance thermometer Resistance R
4. Thermocouple Thermal e.m.f. E
5. Mercury in glass thermometer Length L
 International Practical Temperature Scale (IPTS)

• An international temperature scale was adopted at the Seventh General Conference

on Weights and Measures held in 1927. It was introduced to provide a scale that
could be easily and rapidly used to calibrate scientific and industrial instruments.

Fixed Points Temperature 0C

Normal boiling point of oxygen -182.97

Triple point of water 0.01
Normal boiling point of water 100.0
Normal boiling point of sulphur 444.60
Normal melting point of antimony 630.50
Normal melting point of silver 960.80
Normal melting point of gold 1063.00
(a) From 0 to 6500C
A platinum resistance thermometer with a platinum wire whose
diameter must lie between 0.05 and 0.20 mm is used, and the
temperature is given by the equation
R = R0 (1+ At + Bt2)
where the constants R0, A and B are computed by measurements at
the ice point, steam points and sulphur point.

(b) From- 190 to 00C

The same platinum resistance thermometer is used, and the
temperature is given by
R = R0 [1+ At + Bt2 + (t-100) t3]
where R0, A, and B are the same as before, and C is determined from
a measurement at the oxygen point.
(c) From 660 to 10630C
A thermocouple, one wire of which is made of platinum and
the other of an alloy of 90% platinum and 10% rhodium, is
used with one junction at 00C. The temperature is given by
the formula
E = a + bt + ct2
Where a, b, and c are computed from measurements at the
antimony point, silver point and gold point. The diameter of
each wire of the thermocouple must lie between 0.35 and
0.65 mm.
Total radiation pyrometers are used to measure the
temperature higher than the gold point.
 Thermodynamic Work
From the knowledge of mechanics, we know that the magnitude
of work is equal to the product of force and the distance moved in
the direction of the force. i.e.,
2

W   Fdx
1

Where F is the force, and dx is the displacement.

From the above definition, it is clear that work will be
performed only when the system changes the position, that is
when the process is performed. However, there are many cases in
which neither the force nor the displacement of point of
application of the force are visible. To circumvent such cases the
mechanics definition of work needs redefining for thermodynamic
systems. The new definition is customarily given in terms of the
raising of a weight external to the system. It is because work is
required to raise the weight against gravity. The definition of work,
according to thermodynamics is defined.
 Definition of Thermodynamic WORK
• “Work is performed
by a system on its
surrounding during a
given process if the
sole effect external
to the system could
be reduced to the
rise of a weight and Example of work crossing the boundary of the system
is given by the
product of the
prescribed weight
and the distance
traveled by it ”.

Work is a boundary phenomenon

It is an Interaction between System
and Its Surroundings Example of no work
 Sign Convention For Work

• When work is done by a system on the

surroundings, it is taken as positive. For
example, work done by a steam turbine is
positive. When the work is done on a
system by the surrounding, it is taken as
negative. Work supplied to run a
compressor is considered as negative.
 Unit of Work

• The unit of work is Nm or Joule [1Nm=1Joule]. The rate at which work is done by, or
upon, the system is known as power.
• Unit of power : Watt and kgf.m/s[in MKS units]
1 kgf- m = 9.806 Nm
1 HP (metric) or 1 PS = 75 x 9.806 Nm/s
= 735.5 W
= 0.7355 kW
 pdV-work or Displacement Work

• Consider the piston cylinder arrangement

• F = pa, p is the pressure and a is the area
• Infinitesimal amount of work done by the gas on
the piston
W = F.dl = padl
W = pdV
• Where dV = adl = infinitesimal displacement
volume.
V
2
1W2   pdV
V
1
 Work- a Path Function
• It is possible to take a system from state
1 to state 2 along many quasi static
paths, such as A,B,or C. Since the area
under each curve represents the work
for each process, the amount of work
involved in each ease is not a function
of the end states of the process, and it
depends on the path the system follows
in going from state 1 to state 2. For this
reason, work is called a path function,
and ‘w’ is an inexact or imperfect
differential. The area 1C2V2V1 
1B2V2V11  area 1A2V2V1 even through
the end states, 1 and 2 remain same.
Thus work is not a property of the
system.
Other Types of Work- Shaft Work
Stirring Work
Electrical Work
Work done in Stretching a Wire
Work done in changing the area of a Surface Film
Work done for Magnetisation
 Heat
• It is an interaction between systems or
between a system and its surroundings
which occurs by virtue of temperature
difference when they communicate.
• Heat flow into the system is taken as
positive and heat flow out of the system
is taken as negative.
• The unit of heat is Joule in S.I. units - and
cal in MKS units
1 Cal = 4.187 J
• Rate of heat transfer = 1 kWh = 860 kcal
 Heat a Path Function

• Heat is a path function. That is, the amount of

heat transferred when system changes from
state 1 to state 2 depends on the intermediate
state through which the system passes, i.e., its
path. Therefore, heat is an inexact differential,
and the differential is written Q. For heat,
2

  Q1Q2
1

• Where 1Q2 is the heat transferred during the

given process between state 1 to state 2.
 Similarities Between Heat and Work

There are many common things between heat and work which are listed below:
• Both are boundary phenomena
• Both are transient phenomena and exist whenever system executes a process.
Heat and work are not something which are possessed by the system
• Both are path functions and therefore form the inexact differentials. Hence,
they are not thermodynamic properties.
 Conclusion

• Definitions of System, Properties, Control Volume and related terminology have

been introduced
• Zeroth law has been stated and temperature concept introduced
• Definitions of thermodynamic Work and Heat have been introduced and methods
of calculating heat and work have been illustrated
Examples
1. State whether the system shown is open or closed when in operation
System
boundary a
Water Tank

System
boundary b
Water Wheel

Water
Collecting
Tank

System a is closed, system b is open

2. State whether the system shown is open or closed when in operation

System Boundary

It is an open system
The engine draws charge
through inlet valve and
exhausts products of
combustion through
exhaust valve
3. State whether the system shown is open or closed when in operation- cooling system

Cooling system is a closed system

4. State whether the boiler shown is open or closed when in operation- cooling system

Boiler system is an open system

5. State whether the system shown in bold is open or closed,
homogeneous or heterogeneous

A Mixture of oxygen and hydrogen in combustible proportions in a rigid

non conducting envelope is ignited by an infinitesimal electric spark

The system is enveloped by a rigid surface. Therefore it is a closed

system. Moreover, the composition of the mixture changes from place to
place as ignition advances and therefore it is a heterogeneous system
6. Classify the following into intensive, extensive, intrinsic and extrinsic properties
1. Pressure 2 Volume 3 Entropy 4 Specific Entropy 5. Specific Volume 6 Temperature 7
Velocity 8 Electric charge

S. No. Property Intensive Extensive Intrinsic Extrinsic

1 Pressure  
2 Volume  
3 Entropy  
4 Specific Entropy  
5 Specific Volume  
6 Temperature  
7 Velocity  
8 Electric Charge  
7. The pressure of gas in a pipeline is measured with a mercury manometer having one
limb open to the atmosphere as shown in figure. If the difference in the height of mercury
in the two limbs is 562 mm, calculate the gas pressure. The barometer reads 761 mm Hg,
the acceleration due to the gravity is 9.79 m/s2, and the density of mercury is 13,640 kg /
m3 . Solution: At the plane AB, we have
p  p o  ρgz
Now
p o  ρgz o

Where z o is the barometric height, ρ the density of mercury and p o the atmospheric
pressure.
Therefore
p  g (z  z o )
= 13,640 kg / m3 x 9.79 m / s2 (0.562 + 0.761)
= 177 x 103 N / m2 = 177 kpa
= 1.77 bar = 1.746 atm.
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26. In a new temperature scale 0P, the boiling and freezing points of water at one atmosphere
are 1000P and 3000P respectively. Correlate this scale with the Celsius Scale. What is the
reading correspond to 00P on the Celsius Scale
The two scales are related as

tc tp
ti tpi
tp= -2tc +300

tc= (0-300)/(-2) = 1500C

ti tf tpi tpf
Celsius Scale New Temperature
Scale
27. The readings tA and tB of two centigrade thermometers A and B agree at the Ice point
(00C) and the steam point (1000C), but elsewhere are related by the equation

tA= l+mtB+ntB2 where l, m, n are constants

When both the thermometers are immersed in a well stirred oil bath , A registers 510C while
B registers 500C. Determine the readings on B when A reads 300C.

Solution :
At Ice Point tA=tB= 0 from equation l=0
At steam point tA=tB=100 0C
When tA= 51 0C, tB= 500C, solving equations, we get tB=29.17 0C when tA =300C
28. Gas from a bottle of compressed helium is used to inflate an inelastic flexible balloon,
originally folded completely flat to a volume of 0.5 m3. If the barometer reads 760 mm Hg,
what is the amount of work done upon the atmosphere by the balloon? Sketch the system
before and the after the process. Solution: The firm line P as shown in figure shows the boundary of
1
the system before the process, and the dotted line P2 shows the
boundary after the process.
The displacement work

This is a positive, because work is done by the system. Work done by

the atmosphere is –50.66 kJ. Since the wall of the bottle is rigid, there
is no p dv- work involved in it.
It is assumed that the pressure in the balloon is
atmospheric at all times, since the balloon fabric is light, inelastic and
Wd   Balloon pdv   Bottlepdv  pv unstressed. If the balloon were elastic and stressed during the filling
process, the work done by the gas would be greater than 50.66 kJ by
kN an amount equal to the work done in stretching the balloon, although
101.325 x 0 .5 m 3
m 2
the displacement work done by the atmosphere is still –50.66kJ.
However, if the system includes both the gas and balloon, the
 50.66 kJ
displacement work would be 50.66 kJ, as estimated above.
30. A piston and cylinder machine containing a fluid system has a stirring device in the
cylinder (as shown in figure). The piston is frictionless, and it is held down against the fluid
due to the atmospheric pressure of 101.325 kPa. The stirring device is turned 10,000
revolutions with an average torque against the fluid of 1.275 mN. Mean while the piston of
0.6m diameter moves out 0.8m. Find the network transfer for the system.
Solution: Work done by the stirring device upon the system (as shown in figure)
W1  2TN
 2 x 1.275 x 10,000 Nm
 80 kJ
This is a negative work for the system.

Work done by the system upon surroundings

W2  (pA).L
kN 
101.325 2
x (0.6) 2 m 2 x 0.80m
m 4
 22.9 kJ
This is a positive work for the system. Hence, the net work done transfer for the system
W  W1  W2   80  22.9   57.1 kJ
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32. It is required to melt 5 tonnes/h of iron from a charge at 150C to molten metal at 16500C.
The melting point is 15350C, and the latent heat is 270 kJ/kg. The specific heat in solid state is
0.502 and in liquid state 0.5344 kJ/kg K. If an electric furnace has 70% efficiency, find the kW
rating needed. If the density in molten state is 6900 kg/m3 and the bath volume is three times
the hourly melting rate, find the dimensions of the cylindrical furnace if the length to
diameter ratio is 2.
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