Chapter 2 - Precipitation

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E VA P O R AT I O N

 Evaporation occurs when the physical state of water is


changed from a liquid state to a gaseous state.

 Evaporation can occur on raindrops, and on free water


surfaces such as seas and lakes.

 It can even occur from water settled on vegetation, soil,


rocks and snow.

 There is also evaporation caused by human activities.


Heated buildings experience evaporation of water settled on
its surfaces.

 Evaporated moisture is lifted into the atmosphere from the


ocean, land surfaces, and water bodies as water vapor.
C O N D E N S AT I O N
 Condensation is the process by which water vapor
changes it's physical state from a vapor, most
commonly, to a liquid.

 Water vapor condenses onto small airborne particles


to form dew, fog, or clouds.

 Condensation is brought about by cooling of the air


or by increasing the amount of vapor in the air to its
saturation point.
P R E C I P I TAT I O N

 Precipitation is the process that occurs when any and


all forms of water particles fall from the atmosphere
and reach the ground.

 Precipitated water may fall into a waterbody or it may


fall onto land.
 The portion of precipitation that appears in
surface
.
 Runoff may consist of component contributions from
such sources as surface runoff, subsurface runoff, or
ground water runoff.
 Surface runoff travels over the ground surface and
through surface channels to leave a catchment area
called a drainage basin or watershed.
 The portion of the surface runoff that flows over the land
surface towards the stream channels is called overland
flow.
 The total runoff confined in the stream channels is
called the streamflow.
INTERCEPTION
 Interception is the process of interrupting the movement
of water in the chain of transportation events leading to
streams.

 The interception can take place by vegetal cover or


depression storage in puddles and in land formations
such as rills and furrows.
I N F I LT R AT I O N

 Infiltration is the physical process involving


movement of water through the boundary area where
the atmosphere interfaces with the soil.

 Water transfer is related to the porosity of the soil


and the permeability of the soil profile.

 Water that is infiltrated and stored in the soil can


also become the water that later is evapotranspired
or becomes subsurface runoff.
P E R C O L AT I O N
 Percolation is the movement of water though the soil, and
it's layers, by gravity and capillary forces.

 The prime moving force of groundwater is gravity. Water


that is in the zone of aeration where air exists is called
vadose water.

 Water that is in the zone of saturation is called


groundwater.

 For all practical purposes, all groundwater originates as


surface water. Once underground, the water is moved by
gravity.

 The boundary that separates the vadose and the saturation


zones is called the water table.

T R A N S P I R AT I O N
 Transpiration is the biological process that occurs
mostly in the day.

 Water inside of plants is transferred from the


plant to the atmosphere as water vapor through
numerous individual leave openings.
RUNOFF
 It generally consists of the flow that is unaffected by
artificial diversions, storages or other works that society
might have on or in a stream channel.
 The flow is made up partly of precipitation that falls
directly on the stream , surface runoff that flows over the
land surface and through channels, subsurface runoff that
infiltrates the surface soils and moves laterally towards the
stream, and groundwater runoff from deep percolation
through the soil horizons.
 Part of the subsurface flow enters the stream quickly, while
the remaining portion may take a longer period before
joining the water in the stream.
 When each of the component flows enter the stream, they
form the total runoff.
 The total runoff in the stream channels is called streamflow
and it is generally regarded as direct runoff or base flow.
STORAGE
 Water is stored in the atmosphere; water is stored
on the surface of the earth, and water stored in
the ground.
S O U R C E S O F DATA
 Data required:
Weather records: temperature, humidity and wind
velocity
Precipitation data
Stream flow records
Evaporation and transpiration data
Infiltration characteristics of the area
Ground water characteristics
Physical and geological
characteristics
1. Weather and rainfall data: I M D (India
Metrological Department, by state government
agencies
2. Stream flow data: state irrigation department
3. Flow in major rivers: CWC(central water
commission)
4. Ground water data: Central ground water
board, state government groundwater
development organization
5. Evaporation, transpiration, infiltration:
Irrigation department and department of
agricultural
6. Physical data of basin: survey of India
7. Geological characteristics: Geological survey of
India
PRECIPITATION
Precipitation

Liquid Solid Snow (small Density


Drizzle equivalent to water
depth
(< 1mm/hr)
Sp. Gravity 0.06 to
0.15

Rain (Light <2.5


Medium Ice (Sleet,
Heavy (> 7.5) Hail, Glaze)
It occurs when a local portion of the atmosphere
becomes saturated with water vapour and the water
condenses.

Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to


Becoming saturated:
Cooling the air or
Adding water Vapour to the air.
Rain is liquid precipitation, as opposed
to non-liquid kinds of precipitation such
as snow, hail and sleet.

Rain required the presence of a thick


layer of the atmosphere to have
temperature above the melting point of
water near and above the Earth’s surface.
Sleet/ Ice pellets are a form of precipitation
consisting of small, translucent balls of ice.

It is frozen raindrops of transparent grains


which form when rain falls through air at
subfreezing temperature.
Snow is form of precipitation within the
Earth’ s atmosphere in the form of crystalline
water ice.
Fog drip is a type of precipitation that forms
when fog droplets condense on the needles or
leaves of tress or other objects, and drips to
the ground.
Soft hail/snow pellets: Forms when supercooled
droplets of water are collected and freeze on a
falling snowflake, forming a 2-5 mm ball of
rime.
Measurement
of
Precipitation

Non-recording type Self-recording type rain


rain gauges gauges

Don’t record rainfall directly, only Automatically record intensity of


collect rain water, when rainfall and time of its occurrence
measured gives total amount of
rainfall
Tipping bucket rain
Symon’s rain gauge
gauge
Weighing type
rain gauge
Standard non-
recording
type rain Float type
gauge rain
gauge
 The non-recording rain gauge used in India is the Symon’s rain
gauge .

 It consists of a funnel with a circular rim of 12.7 cm diameter


and a glass bottle as a receiver.

 The cylindrical metal casing is fixed vertically to the masonry


foundation with the level rim 30.5 cm above the ground
surface.

 The rain falling into the funne is collecte i the receiver and
is measured in a special measuring glass graduated in mm of
rainfall; when full it can measure 1.25 cm of rain.

 The rainfall is measured every day at 08.30 hours IST.


 During heavy rains, it must be measured three or four times in
the day, lest the receiver fill and overflow, but the last
measurement should be at 08.30 hours IST and the sum total of
all the measurements during the previous 24 hours entered as
the rainfall of the day in the register.

 Thus the non-recording or the Symon’s rain gauge gives only


the total depth of rainfall for the previous 24 hours (i.e., daily
rainfall) and does not give the intensity and duration of rainfall
during different time intervals of the day.

 It is often desirable to protect the gauge from being damaged


by cattle and for this purpose a barbed wire fence may
be erected around it.
IMD’s Standard non-recording type rain gauge
Weighing Type Rain Gauge
Float Type Rain Gauge
R A I N G AU G E NETWORK
 Since the catching area of the raingauge is very
small as compared to the areal extent of the
storm, to get representative picture of a storm
over a catchment the number of raingauges
should be as large as possible, i.e. the catchment
area per gauge should be small.
 There are several factors to be considered to
restrict the number of gauge:
⚫ Like economic considerations to a large extent
⚫ Topography & accessibility to some extent.
M I N I M U M D E N S I T Y O F R A I N G AU G E S
A C C O R D I N G TO I S 4987-1968

 In plains : 1 station per 520 km 2


 In regions of avg. elevation of 1000m :
1 station per 260-390 km 2
 In predominantly hilly areas with heavy rainfall :
1 station per 130 km 2

 10% of total should be self recording raingauges


A D E Q UA C Y O F R A I N G A U G E STAT I O N S
R A I N FA L L O N A W AT E RS H E D S C A L E

 Raingauges rainfall represent only point sampling of


the areal distribution of a storm
 The important rainfall for hydrological analysis is
a rainfall over an area, such as over the catchment
 To convert the point rainfall values at various
stations to in to average value over a catchment, the
following methods are used:
3 common methods for estimating average rainfall.
1. Arithmetic Mean
2. Thiesson polygon method
3. Isohyetal method
Measured Rainfall at Six Rainfall
Gages
P6 = Watershed boundary
1.81”

P4 = P2 =
2.26”
2.15” P1 =
1.62”

P5 =
2.18”

P3 =
1.80”
ARITHMETIC MEAN METHOD

 P avg = [ W i x P i ] /  W i
⚫ All gages given equal weight
 Weight = 1
⚫ P avg = (1.82 + 2.15 + 2.26 + 2.18 + 1.62 + 1.8) / 6
⚫ P a v g = 1.97 in.
T H I E S S E N P O LYG O N M E T H O D

 First: Draw straight dashed lines between each


rainfall gage
 Second: Draw solid perpendicular bisectors to
these lines so that watershed area associated with
each gage is enclosed by bisector lines
⚫ These enclosed areas are known as Thiessen
Polygons
⚫ The area within each polygon is closer to the
rain gage enclosed than any other rain gage.
 The rainfall measured in the polygon is assumed to be
representative of the rainfall in the entire polygon
T H I E S S E N P O LYG O N M E T H O D

 Third: Determine the area of each polygon


⚫ The rain gage weight is the area of the polygon it is located
in
 Fourth: Calculate the average rainfall using:
⚫ P avg = [ W i x P i ] /  W i
Step #1: Dashed Lines Between Each Rain G a

Watershed boundary
P6 =
1.81” P2 =
2.15”
P4 =
2.26”
P1 =
1.62”

P5 =
2.18”

P3 =
1.80”
Step #2: Draw the Perpendicular Bisector Lin

Watershed boundary
Step #3: Determine the Area of Each Polygon

Watershed boundary

A 6 = 65 A 4 = 269
ac ac
A 2 = 150
ac

A 1 = 56
ac
A 5 = 216
ac
A 3 = 136
ac
S T E P #4: C A L C U L AT E T H E A V E R A G E
R A I N FA L L

 P avg = [ W i x P i ] /  W i
⚫ P a v g = [(65x1.81)+(150x2.15)+(269x2.26)+
(216x2.18)+(56x1.62)+(136x1.8)] /
[65+150+269+
216+56+136]
⚫ P a v g = 2.08 in.
Thiessen polygons … … … .
Thiessen polygons … … … .

P7
P6

A7
A6
P2

A2
A1
A8 A5
P1
P8 P5
A3 A4
P3

P4
Thiessen polygons … … … .

P1 A1  P2 A2  .....  Pm
P  A1  A2  .....  Am
Am

Generally for M station
M

PA i i M
A
P  i 1

Atotal

i Pi Ai
1

Ai
The ratio A is called the weightage factor of
station i
Isohyetal Method
• An isohyet is a line joining points of
equal magnitude.
rainfall 10.0
8

C D
6 a 51
9.2 2
1a4
7.0 a3
2
4 B
7.2
A
a2 E 10.0
9.1
4.0

a1 F
8

6
4
Isohyetal Method

• P 1 , P 2 , P 3 , … . , P n – the values of the isohytes


• a 1, a 2, a 3, … ., a 4 – are inter isohytes area
the respectively
• AP – the total catchment area
• - the mean precipitation over the catchment
 P1 P2   P2 P3 
a1 a2 ... n
 Pn1  Pn
 2   2 a  2 
P 1

A
NOTE
The isohyet method is superior to the other two methods
especially when the stations are large in number.
2.4 P R E PA R AT I O N O F D ATA
 Before using rainfall data, it is necessary to check
the data for continuing and consistency
⚫ Missing data
⚫ Record errors

Estimation of Missing Data


• Given annual precipitation values – P 1 , P 2 , P 3 , … P m at
neighboring M stations of station X 1, 2, 3 & m
respectively
• The normal annual precipitation given by N 1 , N 2 , N 3 , …,
N m , N i … (including station X)
• To fi nd the missing precipitation, P x , of
 N
P
P  P station X
Px  x1
 2
 ...  m 

 N2 Nm 
M 1

N
Test for consistency record
(Double mass curve techniques)
• Let a group of 5 to 10 base stations in the
neighbourhood of the problem station X is selected
• Arrange the data of X stn rainfall and the average of the
neighbouring stations in reverse chronological order (from
recent to old record)
• Accumulate the precipitation of station X P x
and the
s starting
average values of the group base station  Pavg
from the latest record.
• P lot the  Px  against  Pavg as shown on the next figure
• A decided break in the slope of the resulting plot is
observed that indicates a change in precipitation regime of
station X, i.e inconsistency.
• Therefore, is should be corrected by the factor shon on the
next slide
Double Mass Curve Analysis Test fo r consistency
record….
5
accumulated annual rainfall of X stn in 10^3 cm

4.5

3.5

3 a M c
Ma  a
c c
2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Accumulated annual rainfall of neigbouring stns in 10^3 cm

P c x – corrected precipitation at any time period t 1 at


M
Pcx  P c stationX
x P x – Original recorded precp. at time period t 1 at station
Ma X
M corrected slope of the double mass curve

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