‫ ةدامال سردم‬: ‫م‬.

‫رهاط ةزمحال‬

2018-2019
Digital Communications

CTE Department -3rd stage

Reference: Digital
Communications
Fundamentals and
Applications,
2nd Addition, by
FernardSklar

Dr. Hussam Dheaa Kamel

Al-Mustafa University Collage CTE Department
2018-2019
Digital Communications CTE Department -3rd stage

Chapter Three
Source Coding Techniques

1 Introduction:
Analog waveform or signals are sampled into pulses. In digital pulses modulation methods, the analog amplitude
pulses are converted to digital form. Thus each sample of the message signal is represented in binary (1, 0) format.
2 Pulse Code Modulation:
The PCM technique samples the input signal x(t) at frequency 𝑓𝑠 ≥ 2𝑊. This sampled pulse is then digitized by the
analog to digital converter as shown in Fig. 2-1.

Figure 2-1 the block diagram of PCM

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Digital Communications CTE Department -3rd stage

The x(t) is bandlimited to W by LPF. The sample and hold circuit then samples this signal at the rate above of Nyquist rate
𝑓𝑠 ≥ 𝑊. The sampled signal 𝑥(𝑛𝑇𝑠)is discrete in time and continuous in amplitude. The quantizer is convert it to q discrete
level by rounding each sample to fixed digital level with minimum error (quantization error). The input to the
quantizer
𝛿 3𝛿 5𝛿 7𝛿 𝛿
𝑥(𝑛𝑇
± 𝑠) (for
,± , ± example)
𝑎𝑛𝑑 ±can astake anyinvalues
shown between
Fig. 2-2. (−4𝛿
Thus the 𝑡𝑜 + 4𝛿),
maximum the output
quantization of isquantizer
error ±. (𝑥𝑞(𝑛𝑇𝑠) are available at
2 2 2 2 2

The quantized signal (𝑥𝑞(𝑛𝑇𝑠) is converted by encoder to v digits binary word, and then converted to serial bit stream to
generate single baseband signal as shown in Fig. 2-3.

2.1 Transmission bandwidth in PCM:

Each quantized sample can be represent by v digits: 𝑞 = 2𝑣, where q is the total number of digital levels.
The number of sample is 𝑓𝑠, and each sample represent by v bits then:
Signaling rate of PCM: 𝑟 = 𝑣 × 𝑓𝑠

And we have 𝑓𝑠≥ 2𝑊.

1
The bandwidth of PCM given half signaling rate: 𝐵𝑟 ≥ 2 𝑟
1
𝐵𝑟 ≥ 2 𝑣𝑓𝑠 Figure 2-2:(a) Transfer characteristic of a quantizer

(b) Variation of quantizer error

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Digital Communications CTE Department -3rd stage

Since 𝑓𝑠≥ 2𝑊

∴
𝐵𝑟 ≥ 𝑣𝑊

Figure 2-3: quantizing of sample value

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Digital Communications CTE Department -3rd stage

2-2 PCM Receiver:

Figure 2-4 shows the block diagram of PCM receiver. The regenerator is to reshapes the pulse and removes the noise. The
signal is then converted into parallel digital words for each sample.

Figure 2-4 PCM receiver

The digital word is converted to its analog value 𝑥𝑞 (𝑡) along with sample and hold (S/H), then passed through lowpass

reconstruction filter to get 𝑦𝐷(𝑡). There is quantization error between reconstructed signal 𝑥(𝑘𝑇𝑠) and original signal 𝑥(𝑡)
as shown in figure 2-5. This can reduced by increasing bits ‘v’, but this increases the bandwidth.

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Digital Communications CTE Department -3rd stage

Figure 2-5: Reconstructed waveform

2-3 Quantization Noise in PCM:

The quantization error is expressed as:

𝜀 = 𝑥𝑞(𝑛𝑇𝑠) + 𝑥(𝑛𝑇𝑠)

The range of amplitude of input 𝑥(𝑛𝑇𝑠) is −𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑡𝑜 + 𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑥 and it is mapped into q levels. So that total amplitude range
2𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 is divided into q levels with step size 𝛿.
2𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝛿=
𝑞

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Digital Communications CTE Department -3rd stage

𝛿 𝛿
We have the maximum quantization error is ± 2, or 𝜀 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = |2 |

The mean square value of quantization error is:

𝛿 𝛿
𝛿
2 1 2 1 𝜀3 2
𝐸( 𝜀2 ) = ∫ 𝜀2𝑓𝜀(𝜀)𝑑𝜀 = ∫ 𝜀 2 𝛿𝑑𝜀 = [ ]
𝛿 𝛿 3 −2𝛿
𝛿
−2 −2

1 3 1 3
1 ( ) ( ) 1 𝛿3 𝛿3 𝛿2
𝛿 𝛿 [
𝐸 ( 𝜀 ) = 𝛿 [ 3 + 3 ] = 3𝛿 8
2 + ] =
8
12

𝑉2
The noise power= 𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒
𝑅

𝑉2
Assume R=1, then the noise power (normalized)= 𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒
1

𝛿2 /12 𝛿 2
𝐸( 𝜀2 ) = =
1
12
The maximum signal power to quantization noise ratio:

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Digital Communications CTE Department -3rd stage

𝑆 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
=
𝑁 𝛿2 /12

We have 𝑞 = 2𝑣, so:

2𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑥
2𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝛿= 𝑞 = 2𝑣
𝑆
Substituting in above
𝑁
equation:
𝑆 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
= 2
𝑁 (
2 𝑥𝑚 𝑎 𝑥
)
2𝑣
12

Let normalized signal power as P

𝑆 𝑃 3𝑃
= 2 =
×2 2𝑣
𝑁
) /12 (𝑥𝑚 𝑎 𝑥
2
( 2 𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑥
2𝑣 )
This equation shows that the signal to noise power ratio of quantizer increases exponentially with increasing bits per
sample. For normalized 𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑆
= 3 × 22𝑣 × 𝑃
𝑁
𝑆 𝑆
( ) 𝑑𝐵 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( 𝑁 ) 𝑑𝐵 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (3 × 22𝑣) = (4.8 + 6𝑣)𝑑𝐵
𝑁

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Digital Communications CTE Department -3rd stage

For normalized values of power the destination signal power ‘P’ is less than 1
So that
𝑆
( 𝑁 ) 𝑑𝐵 ≤ (4.8 + 6𝑣)𝑑𝐵