Theory of Relativity

Theory of Relativity – A Brief Introduction

Most basic concept of “relativity” is as old as Galilean and

Newtonian mechanics. Until 20th century, Newton’s laws were
held true and absolutely believed in. But, in 1905, German-
born theoretical physicist, Albert Einstein formulated the
Theory of Relativity and named it Special Theory of Relativity.
This modern theory brought glamour in physics by describing
concepts like increase in mass, time dilation, length
contraction. While, Newtonian mechanics is found incapable
to explain such newly introduced concepts. In 1915, Einstein
proposed another theory named as the General Theory of
Relativity. The Special Theory of Relativity deals with objects
moving with uniform velocity relative to each other. However,
the General Theory of Relativity deals with objects moving
with non-uniform velocities relative to each other.
 Theory of Relativity – A Brief Introduction

Although the concept of relativity was not introduced by

Einstein, his major contribution was the recognition that the
speed of light in a vacuum is constant and an absolute
physical boundary for motion. This does not have a major
impact on a person's day-to-day life since we travel at speeds
much slower than light speed. For objects travelling near light
speed, however, the theory of relativity states that objects will
move slower and shorten in length from the point of view of
an observer on Earth.
 Newton's theory versus Einstein’s special
theory of relativity

Newton's theory:

The existence of infinitely many inertial frames; each frame is

of infinite size (covers the entire universe). The inertial frames
move in all possible directions with relative uniform motion.
Time is universal, or absolute.
Two inertial frames are related by Galilean transformations.
In all inertial frames, only Newton's laws, and gravity, hold.
 Newton's theory versus Einstein’s special
theory of relativity

Einstein’s special theory of relativity:

The relative velocity between two inertial frames is bounded

above by the speed of light.
Instead of universal time, each inertial frame has its own
time.
Two inertial frames are related by Lorentz transformations.
In all inertial frames, all laws of physics hold.
 Special versus General Theory of Relativity

The Special Theory of Relativity:

This deals with the case of an inertial frame of reference

moving with constant velocity with respect to another inertial
frame.
Its consequences are most important as v → c

The General Theory of Relativity:

This deals with the case of an inertial frame of reference

accelerating with respect to another inertial frame.
A relationship results between accelerated motion and
gravitational effects
It is the current theory describing the gravitational interaction
Not based on quantum mechanics
 Frame of Reference
A system of coordinate axes which defines the position of a
particle in two-or three-dimensional space is called frame of
reference.

All motion is relative and in each case a frame of reference

is part of the description of the motion

There is no universal frame of reference that can be used

everywhere.

Inertial Frame of Reference Non-inertial Frame of Reference

 Inertial Frame of Reference

The systems in which the Newton’s First law of motion holds

good are called inertial frame of reference.

Any frame of reference that moves with a constant velocity

relative to an inertial frame is itself an inertial frame of reference

Non-inertial Frame of Reference

The systems in which the Newton’s First law of motion does
not holds good are called non-inertial frame of reference.

A frame of reference which is in accelerated motion with

respect to an inertial frame is called non-inertial frame of
reference
 Galilean Transformation

y K y´ K´
v EVENT

vt x´
x
x x´
O ´
O´
x´ = x – vt

Z Z´ y´ = y
z´ = z
Time is absolute t´ = t
 The Need for Ether
The wave nature of light seemed to require a propagation
medium. It was called ether.

Ether had to have such a low density that the planets could
move through it without loss of energy.
It had to have an elasticity to support the high velocity of
light waves.
And somehow, it could not support longitudinal waves.
And (it goes without saying…) light waves in the ether
obeyed the Galilean transformation for moving frames.
 Michelson-Morley Experiment
M1

Beam II
P P’

S M2

Beam I

The mirrors M1 and M2 are so placed that PM1 = PM2 = l

 M1 M 1’
B B’

P P’

In time t2’ the mirror M1 shifts to M1’ and travels a distance vt2’
 Michelson-Morley Experiment

If light requires a medium, then its velocity depends on

the velocity of the medium. Velocity vectors add.

Parallel Anti-parallel
velocities velocities
   
vlight vether vether vtotal

 
vtotal vlight

vtotal  vlight  vether vtotal  vlight  vether

Postulates of Special Theory of Relativity

 All the fundamental laws of physics retain the same form in all the inertial
frame of reference

 The velocity of light in free space is constant and is independent of the relative
motion of the source and the observer
 Lorentz Transformation

y F y´ F´
P (x,y,z,t)
v
(x´,y´,z´,t´)

x x´
O ´
O´

Z Z´
Let a pulse of light be generated at t = 0 from the origin and
spreads out in space and at the same time frame F’ starts moving
with constant velocity v along +ve x direction relative to frame F.
The transformation equations of x and x’ can be written as

x'  k ( x  vt ) (i)
where k is a constant of proportionality and is independent of x
and t.
The inverse relation can be written as
x  k ( x' vt ' ) (ii)
Here t  t' . Putting value of x’ from (i) in (ii)

x  k[k ( x  vt )  vt ' ]
x
 kx  kvt  vt '
k
x kx kx  1 
t '    kt or t '  kt  1  2  (iii)
kv v v  k 
 According to second postulate of special theory of relativity speed
of light c remains constant, so velocity of light which spreads out
should be same in both frames
x  ct and x'  ct ' (iv)
Putting values of x and x’ from (iv) in (i)
ct '  k ( x  vt )  k (ct  vt )
ct '  kt (c  v) (v)
Similarly using (iv) in (ii), we get

ct  kt ' (c  v) (vi)
Multiplying (v) and (vi)

c 2tt '  k 2tt ' (c 2  v 2 )

 2
c
k  2 2
2
(vii)
(c  v )
1
k  (viii)
1 v2 c2
Using (viii) in (i), we get
( x  vt )
x' 
1 v c2 2

Using (vii) in (iii), we get

kx  c v 
2 2
t '  kt  1  2

v  c 
 kx  v 2 
t '  kt   2 
v c 
 xv 
t'  kt  2 
 c 
 xv 
t  2 
 c 
t' 
1 v2 c2
y'  y and z'  z

These equations are known as Lorentz transformation equations

If the frame F is moving with velocity v along the –ve direction of
X-axis relative to frame F’, then the transformation equations

( x '  vt ' ) y  y'

x z  z'
1 v2 c2
 x' v 
 t ' 2 
 c 
and t
1 v c2 2

These equations are known as inverse Lorentz transformation

equations
If speed of moving frame is much smaller than the velocity of
light then the Lorentz transformation reduces to Galilean
transformation equations
 Length Contraction

y F y´ F´
v
x’2
x’1 A B
O x ´
O´ x´
x1
x2
Z Z´
Let Lo be the length of the rod in Frame F’ measured by O’ at any
instant. This length Lo is called the proper length.

Lo  x  x
'
2
'
1
Let L be the length of the rod measured by an observer O in
stationary frame F.
L  x2  x1
As per Lorentz transformation

x1  vt
x 
'
1 (i)
1 v c 2 2

x2  vt
x 
'
2 (ii)
1 v2 c2
 Subtracting (i) from (ii), we get
x2  x1
x x 
'
2
'
1
1 v c
2 2

L
Lo 
1 v2 c2
2
v
L  Lo 1  2
c
 L  Lo
Thus the length of the rod is reduced in the ratio 1  v 2 c 2 : 1
as measured by the observer moving with velocity v with
respect to the rod.
 Time Dilation
y F y´ F´
v
P (x´,y´,z´)

O x ´
O´ x´

Z Z´

Imagine a gun is placed at point P in the frame F’

Suppose the gun fires two shots at time intervals t’1 and t’2
measured by observer O’ in the frame F’
The time interval ( t’2 - t’1 ) of two shots measured by the clock
at rest in moving frame F’ is called proper time interval and is
given by
t 2'  t1'  to
In the frame F, the observer O, which is at rest, observes these
shots at different times t1 and t2 The time interval is given by
t 2  t1  t
As the motion is relative, we can assume that F is moving with
velocity –v along positive x-axis relative to F’

From inverse Lorentz transformation equations

t  vx' / c
' 2
t1  1 (i)
1 v2 c2
 t  vx' / c
' 2
t2  2 (ii)
1 v2 c2
Using (i) and (ii)
t 2  t1  t

t t' '
to
t  2 1 or t
1 v c 2 2
1 v c 2 2

 t  to
Thus the time interval appears to be lengthened by a factor
1 1 v c 2 2 which is observed by the observer O in

frame F. This is called time dilation.

 Velocities Addition
y F y´ F´
v
P (x´,y´,z´)

O x ´
O´ x´

Z Z´

Let u and u’ be the velocities of the particle measured in

frames F and F’
The velocity components are given as
dx dy dz

}
ux  uy  uz 
dt dt dt
(i)
' ' '
dx dy dz
u x'  ' u 'y  ' u z'  '
dt dt dt
From inverse Lorentz transformation

}
( x' vt ' )
x y  y' z  z'
1 v c 2 2

 x' v  (ii)
 t ' 2 
 c 
t
1 v2 c2
Differentiating equation (ii), we get

}
dx' vdt '
dx  dy  dy ' dz  dz '
1 v c2 2
(iii)
vdx'
dt ' 2
dt  c
1 v2 c2
From (i) and (iii), we have
dx'
dx dx' vdt ' v u x'  v
ux    dt ' 
dt dt ' vdx' vdx' v '
1  2 ux
1 2
c2 c dt ' c
Similarly

u '
1 v c
2 2
u '
1 v c
2 2

uy 
y
and uz  z
v ' v '
1  2 ux 1  2 ux
c c
Here the expressions for u x , u y and u z represent the relativistic
laws of addition of velocities
If u  c
'
x i.e. if the light is emitted in the moving frame F’
along its direction of motion relative to F, then

u v '
cv c (c  v )
ux  x
  c
v ' vc cv
1  2 ux 1 2
c c
From above expression it is clear that the speed of light is
same in all inertial frames
 Variation of mass with velocity
y F y´ F´
v
B1 B2

u -u
O x ´
O´ x´

Z Z´

Mass of the two elastic balls (B1 and B2) in frame F’ is m.

The elastic balls (B1 and B2) collide with each other in such a
way that they coalesce into one body
By applying the law of conservation of linear momentum
Momentum (B1) + Momentum (B2) = Momentum of coalesced body
(mu )  ( mu )  0
Thus the coalesced body must be at rest in Frame F’.
Let u1 and u2 be the velocities of the two elastic balls in frame F
According to Lorentz velocity transformation
uv
u1  (i)
1  uv c 2
u v
u2  (ii)
1  uv c 2
After collision the coalesced body moves with the velocity of
Frame F’. Thus v is the observed velocity in frame F.
Let m1 and m2 be the masses of the balls B1 and B2 in frame F
By applying the law of conservation of linear momentum
m1u1  m2u2  (m1  m2 )v (iii)
Using equations (i) and (ii) in (iii)
 uv   u v 
m1    m2 
2 
  (m1  m2 )v
2 
 1  uv c   1  uv c 
 uv   u v 
m1   v   m2  v  
2 
 1  uv c  1  uv c 
2

 u (1  v 2 c 2 )   u (1  v 2 c 2 ) 
m1  2 
  m2  2 

 1  uv c   1  uv c 
 m1 1  uv c 2

m2 1  uv c 2
From equation (i)

1
u 2
 1
1 (u  v) / c 

(2
1  u 2
c 2
)(1  v 2
c 2
)
(v)
c 2
(1  uv c )2 2
(1  uv c 2 2
)
Similarly from equation (ii)
u22 (1  u 2 c 2 )(1  v 2 c 2 )
1 2  (vi)
c (1  uv c 2 ) 2
Dividing equation (vi) by (v)

1 u c2 2
(1  uv c ) 2 2
2

1 u c2
1
2
(1  uv c )
2 2
 1 u c 2 2
(1  uv c 2 )
2
 (vii)
1  u1 c
2 2 (1  uv c 2
)
From equation (iv) and (vii)

m1 1 u c 2 2
 2

m2 1  u1 c
2 2

m  1  u c  m  1  u c 
1
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
(viii)

From (viii), it is clear that LHS and RHS are independent of

each other. This is true when each equal to a constant.

 1
2
 
m1 1  u c  m2 1  u c  mo
2 2
2
2

where mo is the rest mass of the body
 Thus
m0 m0
m1  and m2 
1  u12 c 2 1  u22 c 2
From above equations it can be concluded that if mo be the rest
mass of the body then its mass m when it moves at speed v will
appear as
m0
m
1 v2 c2
This is the relativistic formula for the variation of mass with
velocity
If we substitute v = c then m becomes  (i.e. infinite mass). Thus
no material particle can have a velocity equal or greater than the
velocity of light.
 Einstein’s Mass Energy relation
Let a body of rest mass mo is moving with velocity then its
mass can be given by
m0
m (i)
1 v c
2 2

According to Newton’s second law of motion, the rate of

change of momentum of the particle is equal to the force
applied on it.
d (mv)
F (ii)
dt
If the particle is displaced by a distance dx by the application
of force F, the work done Fdx is stored as kinetic energy (EK)
in the body.
dW  dE  Fdx
K
(iii)
From equation (ii) and (iii)
d (mv)
dE K  dx
dt
dx
dE K  d (mv)
dt
dE K  v(vdm  mdv)

dEK  v 2 dm  mvdv (iv)

But m0
m
1 v2 c2

m 2 c 2  m 2 v 2  mo2 c 2 (v)
Differentiating equation (v)

2mdmc  2mdmv  2vdvm  0

2 2 2
( mo and c are constants)

dmc  v dm  mvdv
2 2
(vi)

Comparing equation (v) and (vi)

dE K  dmc 2
(vii)

From equation (vii), we find that change in kinetic energy is

directly proportional to the change in mass.
If the body is at rest, its velocity will be zero and hence the
change in kinetic energy will be zero i.e. mass will be mo
If the body moves with velocity v, then its mass becomes m
and its K.E. becomes EK.
Integrating equation (vii)
EK m

 dE c  dm
2
K
0 m0

E K  c 2 [m  m0 ]  mc 2  m0 c 2

mc 2  E K  m0 c 2 (viii)
2
From equation (viii), we find that mc is the total energy. It is
the sum of kinetic and rest mass energy

E  mc 2
This relation is called Einstein’s mass energy relation.
 Energy Momentum relation
Let a particle of rest mass mo is moving with velocity, v then
the energy associated with it is given by
m0 c 2
E  mc 2 
1 v2 c2
Momentum of the particle is
p  mv or v p m
m0 c 2
E
1 ( p m c )
2 2 2

m0 c 2
E
1 ( p c m c )
2 2 2 4
 m0 c 2
E
1 ( p c E )2 2 2

2 4
m0 c
E 
2

1  ( p 2c 2 E 2 )
2 4
E [1  ( p c E )]  m0 c
2 2 2 2

2 4
E  p c  m0 c
2 2 2

2 4
E  m0 c  p c
2 2 2

2 4
E  m0 c  p 2 c 2
Kinetic Energy is given by

E K  E  m0 c 2
2 4
E K  m0 c  p c  m0 c2 2 2

 p 2

1/ 2

E K  m0 c 1  2 2   1
2
(i)
 m0 c  
 
But 1/ 2
 p  2
1 p 2
1  2   1 (v  c )
 m c2  2 2
2 m0 c
 0 
Equation (i) now becomes

 1 p 2
 p 2
E K  m0 c 2 1  2 2
 1 
 2 m0 c  2m0
When (v  c) then we have m  m0
2
p
EK 
2m
Thus in limit of small velocities, the relativistic relation between
kinetic energy and momentum tends to the classical relation