SPECIAL SENSE

Prashanna Shrestha
 Sensation

Sensation is the cortical perception of threshold

sensory stimulus.

Receptor : specialized dendritic endings of

afferent nerves

Sense organ: sensory receptors surrounded by

non-neural tissues form sense organ.
SENSE ORGANS
 Eye
 Ear

 Nose

 Tongue

 Skin
EYE
 Sense organ of vision
 Eye gathers information about environment and the brain interprets this
information to form an image of what appears within field of vision.
 The eye is often compared to a camera
 with the cornea acting as the lens,
 the pupillary diameter functioning like the aperture of the camera, and
 the retina serving as the film.
 However the eye, especially the retina, is far more sophisticated than even
the most expensive camera.
ANATOMY OF EYE
 Eye consists of three layers from outside to inside:
a. Sclera
b. Choroid
c. Retina

A) Sclera
 outer protective layer of the eyeball

 Also called “white of the eye” through which no light can pass.

 It is modified anteriorly to form the transparent cornea, through

which light rays enter the eye.

 The lateral margin of the cornea is contiguous with the

conjunctiva, a clear mucous membrane that covers the sclera.
B) Choroid layer
 Just inside the sclera is the choroid layer
 It is a vascular layer that provides oxygen and nutrients to the
structures in the eye.

C) Retina
 Lining of the posterior two thirds of the choroid
 It is neural tissue containing photoreceptors
SPECIAL SENSES
 Other structures in eyeball
 Crystalline Lens
 transparent structure held in place by a circular lens suspensary
ligament (zonule).
 The zonule is attached to the ciliary body , which contains circular
muscle fibers and longitudinal muscle fibers that attach near the
corneoscleral junction.
 Iris
 Lies in front of the lens
 is pigmented and opaque
 the colored portion of the eye.
 The iris contains circular muscle fibers that constrict and radial fibers
that dilate the pupil.
 Pupil : it is central aperture of iris diaphragm
 Variations in the diameter of the pupil can produce up to a fivefold
change in the amount of light reaching the retina
 Lens divides the eyeball into
 aqueous chamber in front of lens and
 vitreous chamber behind lens

 Aqueous chamber can further be divided into

 anteriorchamber in front of iris
 posterior chamber behind iris

 Aqueous chamber is filled with aqueous humor which is

a clear fluid produced by ciliary body.
 It nourishes cornea, lens and iris
 Aqueous humor, produced by cilliary body, is absorbed through a
network of trabeculae in to the channel of Schlemn, a venous
channel at the junction between iris & cornea.

 Obstruction results in rise of intraocular pressure [10-20 mm Hg,

normal] leading to damage of retinal nerves . The condition is
called glaucoma.

 Glaucoma may be
 open angle [less permeability through trabeculi]
 close angle [forward movement of iris]

 Rx: β-adrenergic blocking drugs or CA inhibitor to decrease

production of aqueous humor or cholinergic agonist that increase
aqueous humor flow.
 Vitreous humour
 Vitreouschamber present behind retina is filled with jelly like
substance called vitreous humour.

 Function :
 Preventsthe wall of eyeball from collapsing
 Maintains intraocular pressure
RETINA
 It is innermost layer of eyeball which consists of following
layers:
1. The inner limiting membrane (ILM);
2. The nerve fiber layer (NFL);
3. The ganglion cell layer (GCL);
4. The inner plexiform layer (IPL);
5. The inner nuclear layer (INL);
6. The outer plexiform layer (OPL);
7. The outer nuclear layer (ONL);
8. The outer limiting membrane (OLM);
9. The photoreceptor layer (PL), and
10. The retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE) monolayer.
 The pigment epithelium absorbs light rays, preventing the

reflection of rays back through the retina.

 Such reflection would otherwise produce blurring of the

visual images.

 The optic nerve leaves the eye at a point 3mm medial to and

slightly above posterior pole of the globe. This is called

optic disk where no rods and cones are present.

 Also called blind spot

 Near posterior pole of eye, there is yellowish spot called
macula.
 Fovea is the centre of macula where only cones are present.
 It is the region of high visual acquity.
 Fundus of eye
 interior surface of the eye, opposite to the lens;
 it includes the retina, optic disc, macula and fovea,
and posterior pole
 The arteries, arterioles, and veins in the superficial
layers of the retina near its vitreous surface can be
examined with opthalmoscope.
PRINCIPLES OF OPTICS
 Light rays are bent when they pass from a medium of one
density into a medium of a different density, except when they
strike perpendicular to the interface.
 The bending of light rays is called refraction and is the
mechanism that allows one to focus an accurate image on the
retina.
 Light rays from an object that strike a liens more than 6m
(20ft) away are considered to be parallel where as;
 light rays from an object closer that 6 m are diverging
MECHANISM

Common defects of the optical system of the eye.

A) In myopia (nearsightedness), the eyeball is too long and light
rays focus in front of the retina. Placing a biconcave lens in front of
the eye causes the light rays to diverge slightly before striking the
eye, so that they are brought to a focus on the retina.
B) In hyperopia(farsightedness), the eyeball is too short and light rays come to a
focus behind the retina. A biconvex lens corrects this by adding to the
refractive power of the lens of the eye.
HYPERMETROPIA
 In some individuals, the eyeball is shorter than normal and
the parallel rays of light are brought to a focus behind the
retina. This abnormality is called hyperopia or
farsightedness.
 Sustained accommodation, even when viewing distant
objects, can partially compensate for the defect, but the
prolonged muscular effort is tiring and may cause headaches
and blurring of vision.
 The prolonged convergence of the visual axes associated
with the accommodation may lead eventually to strabismus.
 The defect can be corrected by using glasses with convex
lenses, which aid the refractive power of the eye in
shortening the focal distance.
MYOPIA
 In myopia (nearsightedness), the anteroposterior diameter of
the eyeball is too long.
 Myopia is said to be genetic in origin. However, there is a
positive correlation between sleeping in a lighted room before
the age of 2 and the subsequent development of myopia.
 Thus, the shape of the eye appears to be determined in part by
the refraction presented to it.
 In young adult humans the extensive close work involved in
activities such as studying accelerates the development of
myopia.
 This defect can be corrected by glasses with biconcave
lenses, which make parallel light rays diverge slightly before
they strike the eye.
ASTIGMATISM
 Astigmatism is a common condition in which the
curvature of the cornea is not uniform.
 When the curvature in one meridian is different from that
in others, light rays in that meridian are refracted to a
different focus, so that part of the retinal image is
blurred.
 A similar defect may be produced if the lens is pushed
out of alignment or the curvature of the lens is not
uniform, but these conditions are rare.
 Astigmatism can usually be corrected with cylindrical
lenses placed in such a way that they equalize the
refraction in all meridians.
•Astigmatism is due to irregular corneal surface.
•Corrected by cylindrical lens
PRESBIOPIA
 The ability of eye to accommodate decreases with advancing age
due to hardening of lens.
 So after ageing they cannot accommodate for near and far vision
 Correction: using bifocal lens
 Upper segment for distant vision and lower segment for near
vision.
EXTRINSIC MUSCLES OF EYE
 Nerves of eye:
 Touch, pain, temperature →5th cranial nerve.
 Extra ocular muscles: LR6 SO4, rest by 3.
 Eyelid muscle →7th cranial nerve.
 Lavetor palpabrae superioris →3rd cranial nerve.

 Parasympathetic supply via 3rd cranial nerve.

 Sympathetic supply from carotid plexus
 Intermediolateral gray column of T1T2 →Superior cervical ganglion → carotid plexus →
long ciliary nerve → dilator pupillae, cilliary muscle
→blood vessels of uvula
 Horner’s syndrome: lesion in sympathetic from superior cervical ganglia
→Paralysis of a part of lavetor palpabrae superioris →drooping of upper eyelids
[paralysis of superior tarsal muscles] + constriction of pupil + anhyhrosis
[sympathetic cholinergic nerve cannot function].enophthalmos by paralysis of
orbitalis– an involuntary muscle supplied by sympathetic nervous system, dilation
of arteries supplying facial region.
PHOTORECEPTORS
Rods and cones are
photoreceptors.
Structure of rods and cones
a) an outer segment,
b)an inner segment
-a nuclear region
-synaptic terminal zone

There are about 6 million

Cones and 120 million rods
in each human eye.
 The outer segments are modified cilia comprised of
regular stacks of flattened saccules or membranous
disks .
 The inner segments are rich in mitochondria where
there is synthesis of the photosensitive compounds.
 The inner and outer segments are connected by a ciliary
stalk through which the photosensitive compounds
travel from the inner segment to the outer segment of
the rods and cones.
 The rods are named for the thin, rod-like appearance of their outer
segments.

 Each rod contains a stack of disk membranes that are flattened

membrane-bound intracellular organelles that have detached from the
outer membrane, and are thus free floating.

 Cones generally have thick inner segments and conical outer segments,
although their morphology varies from place to place in the retina.

 The saccules of the cones are formed by infolding of the membrane of the
outer segment.

 The saccules and disks contain the photosensitive compounds that react
to light, initiating action potentials in the visual pathways.
 One of the most important characteristics of the visual system
is its ability to function over a wide range of light intensity.
 When one goes from near darkness to bright sunlight, light
intensity increases by 10 log units, that is, by a factor of 10
billion.
 One factor reducing the fluctuation in intensity is adjustments
in the diameter of the pupil; when the diameter is reduced from
8 to 2 mm, its area decreases by a factor of 16 and light
intensity at the retina is reduced by more than 1 log unit.
 Another factor in reacting to fluctuations in intensity is the
presence of two types of photoreceptors.
 The rods are extremely sensitive to light and are the receptors
for night vision (scotopic vision).
 The scotopic visual apparatus is incapable of resolving the
details and boundaries of objects or determining their color.
 The cones have a much higher threshold, but the cone
system has a much greater acuity and is the system
responsible for vision in bright light (photopic vision)
and for color vision.
 There are thus two kinds of inputs to the central nervous
system (CNS) from the eye: input from the rods and
input from the cones.
 The existence of these two kinds of input, each working
maximally under different conditions of illumination, is
called the duplicity theory
DISTRIBUTION OF RODS AND CONES IN
RETINA
PHYSIOLOGY OF VISION
 When light strikes rods and cones, there is bleaching of
photosensitive pigments present in rods and cones

 Generates neural impulses

FUNCTIONS OF RODS AND CONES
 Rods
 Dim light vision
 Peripheral vision/ field of vision

 Cones
 A= Acuity of vision
 B= Bright light vision
 C= Color vision
THE PHOTORECEPTOR
MECHANISM
 The potential changes that initiate action potentials in the retina
are generated by the action of light on photosensitive compounds
in the rods and cones.
 When light is absorbed by these substances, their structure
changes, and this triggers a sequence of events that initiates
neural activity.
 The eye is unique in that the receptor potentials of the
photoreceptors and the electrical responses of most of the other
neural elements in the retina are local, graded potentials, and it is
only in the ganglion cells that all-or-none action potentials
transmitted over appreciable distances are generated.
 The responses of the rods, cones, and horizontal cells are
hyperpolarizing, and the responses of the bipolar cells are either
hyperpolarizing or depolarizing, whereas amacrine cells produce
depolarizing potentials
 Photosynthetic pigments
 In rods: rhodopsin (dim light vision) {scotopsin+ retinal}
 Structure of rhodopsin
 Comprised of retinal and opsin
 Retinal is synthesized from vitamin A
 Opsin is a G protein coupled receptor in rod cell membrane
RHODOPSIN-RETINAL VISUAL CYCLE,
AND EXCITATION OF RODS
IONIC BASIS OF PHOTORECEPTOR
POTENTIALS
 Na + channels in the outer segments of the rods and cones are
open in the dark, so current flows from the inner to the outer
segment.
 Current also flows to the synaptic ending of the photoreceptor.
 The Na , K ATPase in the inner segment maintains ionic
equilibrium.
 Release of synaptic transmitter (glutamate) is steady in the dark.
 When light strikes the outer segment, the reactions that are
initiated close some of the Na + channels, and the result is a
hyperpolarizing receptor potential.
 The hyperpolarization reduces the release of glutamate, and this
generates a signal in the bipolar cells that ultimately leads to
action potentials in ganglion cells.
 The action potentials are transmitted to the brain.
 In dark, retinal is in 11-cis configuration
 When light strikes the retinal, it is converted into all
trans isomer.
 This alters configuration of opsin
 Opsin activates G protein associated with it called
tranducin
 In transducin, GDP is replaced by GTP and alpha
subunit gets separated and a-GTP activates cGMP
phosphodiesterase
 → activation of phosphodiesterase that converts cGMP
into 5’GMP → decreased intracellular cGMP → Closure
of cGMP-gated Na+ channels → Hyperpolarization →
decreased release of synaptic transmitter → Response in
bipolar cells & other neurons
SPECIAL SENSES
SPECIAL SENSES
 Sequence of events
involved in
phototransduction in
rods and cones.
VISUAL PATHWAY
VISUAL PATHWAYS
 The impulses generated in rods and cones are transmitted to
bipolar neuron then to ganglionic cell.
 Sensory pathway from eye to cerebral cortex is a three
order neuron pathway.
a) First order neuron
Bipolar neuron forms first order neuron whose dendrites
synapse with photoreceptors and axon synapse with
ganglionic cell
Only local, graded potential is produced in photoreceptors and
bipolar neuron.

b) Second order neuron

Ganglionic neuron forms second order neuron whose dendrite
synapse with bipolar neuron.

Action potential is generated at ganglionic neuron

Axons of ganglionic nerve forms optic nerve which exits the

eyeball from optic disk.
 Nasal fibers from nasal hemiretina cross at optic chiasma but
temporal fibers donot cross.
 Temporal fiber of one eye and nasal fiber of another eye run
together and form optic tract
 So fibers in optic tract synapse with another neuron at Lateral
geniculate body (Thalamus)

C) Third order neuron

Third order neuron in LGB passes through internal capsule into cortex
as geniculocalacrine tract. Ultimately, they reach at visual cortex
(primary visual cortex area 17)
 Visual cortex is located on the medial surface of the
occipital lobe, above and below the calacrine fissure.

 Fibers also reach visual association area area18, frontal

eye field area 8.
VISUAL ACUITY

 The degree to which the details and contours of objects

are perceived.

 Minimum distance by which two lines can be separated

and still be perceived as two lines.

 Tested by using snellen’s chart.(far point)

 Jaegars chart (near point)
VISUAL REFLEXES
 Shining of light in one eye cause constriction of pupil in that eye
(direct light reflex) and constriction of pupil in another eye
(consensual light reflex)
ACCOMMODATION REFLEX
 The ability of the eye to focus an object at varying distances is
called accommodation.
 It is change of curvature of anterior surfaces of lens.
 Refractive power of lens is increased by increasing its convexity
 Three-part response to look near object so called near
response.(3Cs)
 Constriction of pupil
 Convergence of eyeball
 Increase in anterior curvature of lens
ARGYLL ROBERTSON PUPIL

 Accomodation reflex present and light reflex absent

 In syphilis
COLOUR VISION

 Color has hue, intensity & saturation [degree of freedom from dilution with white].

 Eye can respond with wavelength from 400-700 nm.

 Cone pigments: Cyanolabe (kuaneos), Chlorolabe (Khloros), Erythrolabes (Eruthros) Gk

 One wavelength can stimulate more than one types of cone [Young-Helmholtz theory]

 Primary color = red, green, blue (white, spectral & non-spectral colors can be made from
them.)
 Complementary color = black/white, red/green, blue/yellow [mixture of them gives gray or
white color]

 Trichromat →3 cone pigments present

 Dichromat → 2 cone pigments present [short & long wave]
 Monochromat → 1 cone pigment present
COLOUR BLINDNESS

 Inability on part of an individual to recognize colour

 Tested by using Ishihara chart

 Classification
 Trichromat: Protanomaly (red), deuteranomaly (green)
Tritanomaly (blue). Anomaly = weakness.

 Dichromat: Protanopia (red-green), deuteranopia (cannot

detect green, confuse with red or blue) Tritanopia. Anopia =
blindness
VISUAL FIELD
 The entire area that can be “seen” by the
patient without movement of the head and
with the eyes fixed on a single spot.
 Mapping of Visual Fields:
• Confrontational test
• Perimetry (Manual or Automated)
 The central parts of the visual fields of the two eyes
coincide; therefore, anything in this portion of the field is
viewed with binocular vision.
ADAPTATION
 If a person spends a considerable length of time in brightly lighted
surroundings and then moves to a dimly lighted environment, the
retinas slowly become more sensitive to light as the individual
becomes “accustomed to the dark.” This decline in visual threshold
is known as dark adaptation.

 It is nearly maximal in about 20 min, although some further decline

occurs over longer periods.

 when one passes suddenly from a dim to a brightly lighted
environment, the light seems intensely and even uncomfortably
bright until the eyes adapt to the increased illumination and the
visual threshold rises.

 This adaptation occurs over a period of about 5 min and is called

light adaptation
 The dark adaptation response actually has two
components.
 The first drop in visual threshold, rapid but small in
magnitude, is known to be due to dark adaptation of the
cones because when only the foveal, rod-free portion of
the retina is tested, the decline proceeds no further.
 In the peripheral portions of the retina, a further drop
occurs as a result of adaptation of the rods.
 The total change in threshold between the light adapted
and the fully dark-adapted eye is very great.
WHY PILOTS WEAR RED GOOGLES?

 Radiologists, aircraft pilots, and others who need

maximal visual sensitivity in dim light can avoid having
to wait 20 min in the dark to become dark-adapted if
they wear red goggles when in bright light. Light
wavelengths in the red end of the spectrum stimulate the
rods to only a slight degree while permitting the cones to
function reasonably well. Therefore, a person wearing
red glasses can see in bright light during the time it takes
for the rods to become dark-adapted.