Computer Systems and Organisation

COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS
 UNIT I
Computer Fundamentals
After studying this session students will be able to:

Learn about various generations of computer

Understand the basic operation of a computer

Study the functional components and their interconnections

Understand the concept of booting

Learn about classification of computers

What is Computer?
 A computer is a device that can
be instructed to carry out sequences
of arithmetic or logical operations
automatically. Modern computers have the
ability to follow generalized sets of
operations, called programs. These
programs enable computers to perform an
extremely wide range of tasks.

 Source Wikipedia
What is Data?
 Data. Data in a computer terminology mean
raw facts and figures.
 For ex-mohan,1977 etc.

What is Information?

means what we get after processing.

Data Vs. Information?

 you should understand that what goes in

the computers is data and what comes out
of them is information.

 This process of turning data into

information is also known as information
processing cycle.
BASIC COMPUTER ORGANISATION
BASIC COMPUTER ORGANISATION

Computer organisation refers to

logical structure of a computer how its
components are connected to one another

ALU Registers

Control Memory

Memory Memory Memory

Functional components of a
Computer

 Input Unit

 CPU

 Output Unit

 Memory
Input Unit
 The input unit consists of input
devices that are attached to the
computer.
 These devices take input and convert
it into binary language that the
computer understands.
 Some of the common input devices
are keyboard, mouse, joystick,
scanner etc.
Input Unit
Central Processing Unit(CPU)
 Once the information is entered
into the computer by the input
device, the processor processes it.
 The CPU is called the brain of the
computer because it is the control
centre of the computer.
 As the CPU is located on a small
chip, it is also called the
Microprocessor.
Central Processing Unit(CPU)
• The CPU has three main
components which are responsible for
different functions –
• Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU),

• Control Unit (CU) &

• Memory registers.
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
 The ALU, as its name suggests
performs mathematical calculations
and takes logical decisions.
Arithmetic calculations include
addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division.
 Logical decisions involve comparison
of two data items to see which
one is larger or smaller or equal.
CU Control Unit (CU)
 The Control unit coordinates and
controls the data flow in and out
of CPU and also controls all the
operations of ALU, memory registers
and also input/output units.
 It is also responsible for carrying out
all the instructions stored in the
program.
MR Memory Registers
 A register is a temporary unit of
memory in the CPU.

 These receive data/information and

then this data/information is held in
them as per the requirement.
 Output Unit
The output unit consists of output
devices that are attached with the
computer.

It converts the binary data coming

from CPU to human understandable
from. The

common output devices are monitor,

printer, plotter etc.
Classification of Computers
 Classification of Computers

The computers can be classified

based on the technology being used as:

Digital Computers

 Analog Computers &

Hybrid Computers
 Digital Computers

These computers are capable of

processing information in discrete
form.

In digital technology data which can

be in the form of letters, symbols or
numbers is represented in binary form
i.e. 0s and 1s.
 Digital Computers

Binary digits are easily expressed in a

digital computer by the presence (1) or
absence (0) of current or voltage.

It computes by counting and adding

operations.
 Digital Computers

The digital computers are used in

industrial, business and scientific
applications.

They are quite suitable for large

volume data processing.
 Digital Computers

EXAMPLES:

IBM PC, HP, LENOVO, DELL, ...etc

Apple Macintosh

Calculators

Digital watches etc

 Analog Computers

An Analog computer works on

continuously changeable aspects of
physical phenomenon such as fluid
pressure, mechanical motion and
electrical quantities.

These computers measure changes in

continuous physical quantities say
current and voltage.
 Analog Computers

These computers are used to process

data generated by ongoing physical
processes.

A thermometer is an example of an
analog computer since it measures the
change in mercury level continuously.
 Analog Computers

Although the accuracy of an analog

computer is less as compared to digital
computers, yet it is used to process
data generated by changing physical
quantities especially when the
response to change is fast.
 Analog Computers
Most present day Analog computers
are well suited to simulating systems. A
simulator helps to conduct
experiments repeatedly in real time
environment.

Some of the common examples are

simulations in aircrafts, nuclear power
plants, hydraulic and electronic
networks.
 Analog Computers
Examples

 Thermometer.

Analog clock.

 Speedometer.

 Tire pressure gauge.

Analog Computers
 Analog Computers
 Boeing B-29 Superfortress Central
Fire Control System
Deltar
Kerrison Predictor
Leonardo Torres y Quevedo's
Analogue Calculating Machines based
on "fusee sans fin"
Librascope, aircraft weight and
balance computer
 Analog Computers
ADVANTAGES:

Analog computer has come to refer to

devices and media that represent:

Store images

Sound, motion pictures, etc.

 Analog Computers
DISADVANTAGES:

 Analog computers can have a very

wide range of complexity.

Slide rules and monographs are the

simplest, while naval gun fire control
computers and large hybrid
digital/analog computers were among
the most complicated.
 Analog Computers
DISADVANTAGES:

Very complicated for containing

output for the users some time.
 Hybrid Computers
These use both analog and digital
technology.

It has the speed of analog computer

and the accuracy of a digital computer.

 It may accept digital or analog

signals but an extensive conversion of
data from digital to analog and analog
to digital has to be done.
 Hybrid Computers

Generally the analog components

provide efficient processing of
differential equations while the digital
part deals with logical operations of
the system.

Hence benefits of both analog and

digital computing are readily available.
 Hybrid Computers

 Hybrid Computers are used as a cost

effective means for complex
simulations.
Examples: Computer used in
hospitals to measure the heartbeat of
the patient. Devices used in petrol
pump.
 Hybrid Computers

A hybrid computer exhibits features of

both analog computers and digital
computers. It applies the real-time
speed of the analog computer and the
accuracy of the digital computer to the
solution of problems that are beyond
the capabilities of either. An example
was the HYDAC 2400, a hybrid computer
released by EAI in 1963.
 Hybrid Computers

An example was the HYDAC 2400, a hybrid computer

released by EAI in 1963.
Hybrid Computers
Classification of Digital Computers

 The digital computers are classified

according to their computing
capabilities.
Classification of Digital Computers

 The various types of digital

computers are :

Micro Computers

Mini Computers

Main Frames

Super Computers
 Micro Computers

These are also known as Personal

Computers. These type of digital
computer uses a microprocessor (a
CPU on a single chip) and include both
desktops and laptops.
 Micro Computers

These computers can work on small

volume of data, are very versatile and
can handle variety of applications.
These computers are being used as
work stations, CAD, multimedia and
advertising applications.
 Micro Computers

Small portable computers such as

PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants) and
tablets with wireless computing
technology are increasingly becoming
popular.
Micro Computers
Micro Computers
Micro Computers
Micro Computers
 Mini Computers
These computers can support
multiple users working simultaneously
on the same machine.

These are mainly used in an

organization where computers
installed in various departments are
interconnected. These computers are
useful for small business organizations.
 Mini Computers
Examples

Control Data's CDC 160A and CDC

1700.
DEC PDP and VAX series.
Data General Nova.
Hewlett-Packard HP 3000 series, HP
2100 series, HP1000 series.
 Mini Computers
Examples

Honeywell-Bull DPS 6/DPS 6000 series.

IBM midrange computers.
Interdata 7/32 and 8/32.
Varian 620 100 series.
 Mini Computers
Examples

Honeywell-Bull DPS 6/DPS 6000 series.

IBM midrange computers.
Interdata 7/32 and 8/32.
Varian 620 100 series.
 Difference between Microcomputer and Minicomputer

S.No. Micro Computer Mini Computer

Microcomputer was launched in 1970. Minicomputer was launched in 1960
1.
It consists of a single microprocessor It consists of multiple processors.
2. that performs all the operations.
Microcomputers are generally used for Minicomputers are generally used by companies to
3. learning and fun. accomplish their tasks.

It is affordable and more user-friendly. It is expensive and less user-friendly.

4.
The speed and performance are slower As it consists of a multiprocessor, the speed and
5. than minicomputers. performance are faster than a microcomputer.

7. The storage space is in Gigabyte (GB) The storage space is in Terabyte (TB).
Minicomputers are mainly used for Microcomputers are mainly used for managing
8. administrative tasks, word processing, databases, graphics, word processing,etc.
process control, etc.

9. Microcomputers are less powerful. Minicomputers are more powerful.

It utilizes disks and tapes for storing. It utilizes tapes or magnetic disks for secondary
10. storage.
 Mainframe Computers
These computers are large and very
powerful computers with very high
memory capacity.

These can process huge databases

such as census at extremely fast rate.
They are suitable for big organizations,
banks, industries etc. and can support
hundreds of users simultaneously on
the network.
 Mainframe Computers
History of IBM mainframes, 1952–
presentMarket name700/7000 series
System/360
System/370
IBM 308X
IBM 3090
System/390
zSeries 900, 800, 990, and 890
System z9
System z10
 Mainframe Computers
History of IBM mainframes, 1952–
present Market name 700/7000 series
zEnterprise System (z196, zEC12, z13,
z14)
ArchitectureSystem/360
System/370
S/370-XA
ESA/370
ESA/390
z/Architecture
 Super Computers

These are fastest and very expensive

computers.

They can execute billions of

instructions per second.
 Super Computers

These are multiprocessor, parallel

systems suitable for specialized
complex scientific applications
involving huge amounts of
mathematical applications such as
weather forecasting.
 Super Computers

The main difference between a

supercomputer and a mainframe is
that a supercomputer executes fewer
programs as fast as possible whereas a
mainframe executes many programs
concurrently.
 Super Computers
Year Supercomputer Location

2016 Sunway TaihuLight Wuxi, China

2013 NUDT Tianhe-2 Guangzhou, China

2012 Cray Titan Oak Ridge, U.S.

2012 IBM Sequoia Livermore, U.S.

2011 Fujitsu K computer Kobe, Japan

2010 Tianhe-IA Tianjin, China
2009 Cray Jaguar Oak Ridge, U.S.

2008 IBM Roadrunner Los Alamos, U.S.

 Hardware and Software
A computer consists of both hardware and
software and both are equally important for
the working of the computer system.

The electronic components of a computer

system that we can see and touch are called
hardware.

Software is a general term used for

computer programs that control the
operations of the computer.
Hardware and Software
 Hardware and Software
A program is a sequence of instructions
that perform a particular task. A set of
programs form a software.

It is the software which gives hardware its

capability.

Hardware is of no use without software

and software cannot be used without
hardware.
 Types of Software

Software can be broadly are

categorized as:

System Software

Application Software

Utility Software
Types of Software
 System Software

System Software is the software that

is directly related to coordinating
computer operations and performs
tasks associated with controlling and
utilizing computer hardware. These
programs assist in running application
programs and are designed to control
the operation of a computer system.
 System Software

System software directs the computer

what to do, when to do and how to
do. System software can be further
categorized into:-

Operating System

Language Translators
 Operating System

 An Operating system is the most

important system software.

It is a set of programs that control

and supervise the hardware of a
computer and also provide services to
application software, programmers
and users. Ex :-
 Operating System

Some of the popular operating

systems used in personal computers
are DOS, Windows, Unix, Linux,
Solaris, etc.
COMPILERS AND INTERPRETERS
 COMPILER
Its a translator used to convert HLL to MLL
and vice versa.
 COMPILER
Its a translator used to convert HLL to MLL
and vice versa.
 INTERPRETER
Its a translator used to convert HLL to MLL
and vice versa.
 INTERPRETER
Its a translator used to convert HLL to MLL
and vice versa.
 Application Software

An application software is bought by

the user to perform specific
applications or tasks.

Say for example making a document

or making a presentation or handling
inventory or managing the employee
database.
 Application Software

 An application software can be of two

types:
General Purpose Application Software
&

Customized Application software.

Application Software - General Purpose
Application Software
 Some of the application software is
made for the common users for day to
day applications and uses.

These are also referred as Office

Tools.

 The users may use them in the

manner they want.
Application Software - General Purpose
Application Software
 Some of the popular types of general
purpose application software are:
Word Processor

Presentation Tools

Spreadsheet Packages

Database Management System

Application Software - Customized
Software
Customized Software is one which is
tailor made as per the user’s
requirement. Such type of software is
customer specific.

 It is made keeping in mind the

individual needs of the user and so are
also referred as Domain Specific Tools
Application Software - Customized
Software
Examples:
Inventory Management System &
Purchasing System
School Management System
Payroll System
Financial Accounting
Hotel Management
Reservation System
Weather Forecasting system
MEMORY CONCEPTS
 Memory

Memory is one of the most

important components of a
computer system as it stores data
and instructions.

Every memory chip contains

thousands of memory locations. In
the computer, the data is stored in
the form of bits and bytes.
 Memory

A bit is the smallest storage unit of

memory. A nibble is a collection of 4
bits. Eight bits combined together to
form a single byte, which in turn
represents a single character
Memory Units
Memory Units
 Permanent
Temporary Storage areas
Storage areas

1 2 3 4
Storage
CPU Cache RAM Devices

ROM/BIOS
Level 1 Physical
Removable
Devices
Registers
Network/
Internet
Storage
Level 2 Virtual
Hard
Drives
 Types of Memories

The computer memories can be

divided into following categories:

Primary Memory

Cache Memory

Secondary memory
 Primary Memory
Primary memory or main
memory is a Metal Oxide
Semiconductor (MOS) memory
used for storing program and
data during the execution of the
program. It is directly accessible
to CPU.
 Primary Memory

Broadly primary memory

can be of two types :–

1. RAM (Random Access Memory)

2. ROM (Read only memory).

Random Access Memory (RAM)
the memory can be accessed from
any desired location randomly.

The instructions and data that we

input into the computer are stored in
the RAM of the Computer.

It is a read/write memory, so data

can be both read from and written to
the RAM.
Random Access Memory (RAM)
It is a volatile memory and loses its
contents when the power is switched
off or interrupted.
Nowadays RAMs are available in
gigabytes. The normal memory
access time of a RAM is 20-80 ns.
Random Access Memory (RAM)
RAM can be broadly classified into
two categories:

Dynamic RAM (DRAM) and

 Static RAM (SRAM).

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
It consists of a transistor and a
capacitor that stores electric charge.

The DRAMs are physically smaller,

cheaper and slower memories. They
are slower because the data stored in
them needs to continuously
refreshed and this consumes lot of
processor time.
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Each refresh operation takes
several CPU cycles to complete. This
is because a capacitor tends to loose
charge over a period of time which
needs to be refreshed again and
again.
 Static RAM
This type of RAM is large in physical
size but is an expensive and faster
memory.

It is faster because it is made up of

flip flops to store data and these flip
flops do not require any refreshing.
 Static RAM
Static RAM is also volatile and is
easier to use as compared to dynamic
RAM. These are used in specialized
applications.
DRAM Vs. Static RAM
 ROM
Its non volatile memory, ie, the
information stored in it, is not lost
even if the power supply goes off. It’s
used for the permanent storage of
information. It also posses random
access property. Information can not
be written into a ROM by the
users/programmers. In other words
the contents of ROMs are decided by
the manufactures.
 Types of ROM
(i) PROM : It’s programmable ROM.
Its contents are decided by the user.
The user can store permanent
programs, data etc in a PROM. The
data is fed into it using a PROM
programs.
 Types of ROM
(ii) EPROM : An EPROM is an erasable
PROM. The stored data in EPROM’s
can be erased by exposing it to UV
light for about 20 min. It’s not easy to
erase it because the EPROM IC has to
be removed from the computer and
exposed to UV light. The entire data is
erased and not selected portions by
the user. EPROM’s are cheap and
reliable.
 Types of ROM
(iii) EEPROM (Electrically Erasable
PROM) : The chip can be erased &
reprogrammed on the board easily
byte by byte. It can be erased with in
a few milliseconds. There is a limit on
the number of times the EEPROM’s
can be reprogrammed, i.e.; usually
around 10,000 times.
 Flash Memory
Its an electrically erasable &
programmable permanent type
memory. It uses one transistor
memory all resulting in high packing
density, low power consumption,
lower cost & higher reliability. Its
used in all power, digital cameras,
MP3 players etc.
 Cache Memory
 Cache memory is a special high
speed memory made up of high speed
static RAMs.

It is used to hold frequently

accessed data and instructions.

We know that the processing speed

of CPU is much more than the main
memory access time of the computer.
 Cache Memory

This means the CPU has to wait for

a substantial amount of time.

Alternatively we have the cache

memory which is a small, expensive
but fast memory that is placed
between the CPU and the main
memory.
 Cache Memory
Whenever some data is required,
the CPU first looks into cache.

If data is found, we call it a cache hit

and the information is transferred to
the CPU.

In case of a miss, the main memory

is accessed.
 Cache Memory
There are two types of cache
memory:
L1 cache: It is small and is built inside
the CPU. It is fast as compared to L2
cache

L2 cache: It is large but slower and is

mounted on the motherboard
Secondary Memory
 Secondary Memory

The major limitation of primary

memory is that it has limited storage
capacity and is volatile.

To overcome this limitation we have

secondary memory storage devices.
This type of memory is also called
external memory. For example Floppy
disk, hard disk, USB drives, CD/DVDs
 Hard disk

A hard disk consists of one or more

circular disks called platters which are
mounted on a common spindle. Each
surface of a platter is coated with a
magnetic material. Both surfaces of
each disk are capable of storing data
except the top and bottom disk where
only the inner surface is used.
 Hard disk

The information is recorded on the

surface of the rotating disk by magnetic
read/write heads. These heads are
joined to a common arm known as
access arm. This arm moves over the
surface of the rotating disk as shown in
the figure (next slide)
Rotating Arm of Hard disk
 Hard disk
Information is recorded on each of
these disks in the form of concentric
circles called tracks which are further
divided into sectors. Hard drives
however, are not very portable and are
primarily used internally in a computer
system. But external hard disks are also
available as a substitute for portable
storage. Today the hard disks have the
storage capacity of several gigabytes to
terabytes.
OPTICAL DISKS
 OPTICAL DISKS
An optical disk is primarily used as a portable
and secondary storage device. It can store more data
than the previous generation of magnetic storage
media, and has a relatively longer lifespan. Compact
disks (CD), digital versatile/video disks (DVD) and Blu-
ray disks are currently the most commonly used
forms of optical disks. These disks are generally used
to:
Distribute software to customers.
Store large amounts of data such as music, images
and videos.
Transfer data to different computers or devices.
Back up data from a local machine.
GENERATION OF
COMPUTERS
 The basic terms related to generations of computers are listed below.
1.Vacuum Tube: Vacuum tubes have the functionality of controlling the flow of electronics
in a vacuum. Generally, it is used in switches, amplifiers, radios, televisions, etc.
2.Transistor: A transistor helps in controlling the flow of electricity in devices, it works as
an amplifier or a switch.
3.Integrated Circuit (IC): Integrated circuits are silicon chips that contain their circuit
elements like transistors, resistors, etc.
4.Microprocessors: Microprocessors are the components that contain the CPU and its
circuits and are present in the Integrated Circuit.
5.Central Processing Unit (CPU): The CPU is called the brain of the computer. CPU
performs processing and operations work.
1.Magnetic Drum: Magnetic Drum is like a cylinder that stores data and cylinder.
2.Magnetic Core: Magnetic cores are used to store information. These are arrays of
small rings.
3.Machine Language: Machine Language is the language that a computer accepts
(in the form of binary digits). It is also called low-level programming language.
4.Memory: Memory is used to store data, information, and program in a computer.
5.Artificial Intelligence: Artificial Intelligence deals with creating intelligent
machines and behaviors.
Generations of Computer Time-Period Evolving Hardware

First Generation 1940s – 1950s Vacuum Tube Based

Second Generation 1950s – 1960s Transistor Based

Third Generation 1960s – 1970s Integrated Circuit Based

Fourth Generation 1970s – Present Microprocessor Based

Fifth Generation Present – Future Artificial Intelligence Based

The Five Generations of Computers

125
Generations of Computer

• The computer has evolved from a large-sized simple

calculating machine to a smaller but much more powerful
machine.

• The evolution of computer to the current state is defined in

terms of the generations of computer.

• Each generation of computer is designed based on a new

technological development, resulting in better, cheaper and
smaller computers that are more powerful, faster and
efficient than their predecessors.
126
Generations of Computer

• Currently, there are five generations of computer. In

the following subsections, we will discuss the
generations of computer in terms of the technology
used by them (hardware and software), computing
characteristics (speed, i.e., number of instructions
executed per second), physical appearance, and their
applications.

127
 First Generation Computers
(1940-1956)
• The first computers used vacuum tubes(a sealed glass tube containing a
near-vacuum which allows the free passage of electric current.) for

circuitry and magnetic drums for memory.

• They were often enormous and taking up entire room.

• First generation computers relied on machine language.

• They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal
of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of
malfunctions(defect or breakdown).

• The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation

computing devices. 128
 First Generation Computers
Advantages :
• It was only electronic device
• First device to hold memory
Universal Automatic Computer

Disadvantages :
• Too bulky i.e large in size
• Vacuum tubes burn frequently
• They were producing heat
• Maintenance problems

Electronic Numerical Integrator

And Computer 129
 Second Generation Computers
(1956-1963)
• Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the
second generation of computers.
• Second-generation computers moved from
cryptic binary machine language to symbolic.
• High-level programming languages were also being
developed at this time, such as early versions
of COBOL and FORTRAN.
• These were also the first computers that stored their
instructions in their memory.

130
 Second Generation Computers

Advantages :
• Size reduced considerably
• The very fast
• Very much reliable

Disadvantages :
• They over heated quickly
• Maintenance problems
131
 Third Generation Computers
(1964-1971)
• The development of the integrated circuit was the
hallmark of the third generation of computers.
• Transistors were miniaturized and placed
on siliconchips, called semiconductors.
• Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted
with third generation computers through keyboards
and monitors and interfaced with an operating system.
• Allowed the device to run many different applications at
one time.

132
Third generation computers

Advantages :
• ICs are very small in size
• Improved performance
• Production cost cheap

Disadvantages :
• ICs are sophisticated

133
Fourth Generation Computers
(1971-1989)
• The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of
computers, as thousands of integrated circuits were
built onto a single silicon chip.
• The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the
components of the computer.
• From the central processing unit and memory to
input/output controls—on a single chip.
• . Fourth generation computers also saw the
development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.

134
Fourth Generation Computers

135
 Fifth Generation Computers
(1990 and beyond)
• Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial
intelligence.
• Are still in development, though there are some
applications, such as voice recognition.
• The use of parallel processing and superconductors is
helping to make artificial intelligence a reality.
• The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop
devices that respond to natural language input and are
capable of learning and self-organization.

136
Fifth Generation Computers

137
 Von Neumann Architecture

• Von Neumann architecture was first published by John

von Neumann in 1945.

• His computer architecture design consists of a Control

Unit, Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), Memory
Unit, Registers and Inputs/Outputs.

• Von Neumann architecture is based on the stored-

program computer concept, where instruction data and
program data are stored in the same memory. This design
is still used in most computers produced today.
 Registers
Registers are high speed storage areas in the CPU. All data must be stored in a register before it can be processed.

Holds the memory location

MAR Memory Address Register of data that needs to be
accessed

Holds data that is being

MDR Memory Data Register transferred to or
from memory

Where intermediate
AC Accumulator arithmetic and logic results
are stored

Contains the address of the

PC Program Counter next instruction to be
executed

Contains the current

CIR Current Instruction Register instruction during
processing
 Buses
Buses are the means by which data is transmitted from one part of a computer to another,
connecting all major internal components to the CPU and memory.

Carries the addresses of data (but not the data)

Address Bus
between the processor and memory

Carries data between the processor, the memory unit

Data Bus
and the input/output devices

Carries control signals/commands from the CPU (and

Control Bus status signals from other devices) in order to control and
coordinate all the activities within the computer
A flowchart is simply a graphical representation
of steps. It shows steps in sequential order and is
widely used in presenting the flow of algorithms,
workflow or processes. Typically, a flowchart
shows the steps as boxes of various kinds, and
their order by connecting them with arrows.
Terminator
The terminator symbol represents the starting or ending point of the system.

Process
A box indicates some particular operation.

Document
This represents a printout, such as a document or a report.

Decision
A diamond represents a decision or branching point. Lines coming out from the
diamond indicates different possible situations, leading to different sub-processes.

Data
It represents information entering or leaving the system. An input might be an order from a
customer. Output can be a product to be delivered.
On-Page Reference
This symbol would contain a letter inside. It indicates that the flow continues on a
matching symbol containing the same letter somewhere else on the same page.

Off-Page Reference
This symbol would contain a letter inside. It indicates that the flow continues on a
matching symbol containing the same letter somewhere else on a different page.

Delay or Bottleneck
Identifies a delay or a bottleneck.

Data Flow