Chapter 1

OPEN CAHNNEL FLOW

Introduction
Open channel: is a conduit for flow, which has a
free surface, i.e. a boundary, exposed to the
atmosphere.
Hence, open channel flow is a flow in which the
flowing fluid is subjected to atmospheric
pressure.
 Examples of Open Channel Flow

The natural drainage of water through the numerous

creek and river systems.
The flow of rainwater in the gutters of our houses.
The flow in canals, drainage ditches, sewers, and
gutters along roads.
The flow of small rivulets, and sheets of water
across field or parking lots.
The flow in the chutes of water rides.
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 Open Channel Flow Vs Pipe flow
Open channel flow Pipe flow
Has free surface subjected Is confined in closed
to atmospheric pressure conduit, exerts no direct
atmospheric pressure but
hydraulic pressure.
the motion is usually Flow is due to pressure
caused by gravity effects difference
HGL coincides with the HGL is indicated by a
free flow surface piezometer.
X-section of flow is not Fixed/stationary
fixed
The analysis is Relatively easier.
complicated
Open Channel Flow Vs Pipe flow
 It is much more difficult to solve problems of flow in
open channels than in pressure pipes. Because:
In open channels the position of the free surface is
likely to change with respect to time and space,
Depth of flow (y), discharge (Q), and bottom slope
(S) and slope of the free surface are interdependent.
Physical condition of open channels vary more
widely than that of pipes.
Cross section of open channel is widely variable and
even might not be ridged,
 Classification of flows
 Open channels flow can be classified into many types
and described in various ways.
A) Classification according to the change in flow depth
with respect to time and space:
1) Steady flow and Unsteady flow (time as a criteria)
Steady flow: the depth of flow does not change.
 In steady flow the flow variables (velocity, pressure,
density, flow path etc) do not vary with time at the
spatial point in the flow.
Unsteady Flow: the depth of flow changes with time.
Example: flood, surges and waves
 Classification of flows
2) Uniform and Non uniform flow (space as a
criteria)
Uniform flow: the depth of flow is the same at every section
of the channel
 Uniform flow can be steady or unsteady depending on
whether or not the depth changes with time
Non-uniform (Varied flow): the depth of flow change along
the length of the channel
 Non-uniform can be gradually varied flow (GVF) or rapidly
varied flow (RVF)
Gradually varied flow: when the depth of flow changes
gradually
 Classification of flows
Rapidly varied flow (RVF): when the depth of flow
changes abruptly over a comparatively a short distance
Example: hydraulic jump and hydraulic drop
 Classification Based on
Dimensionless Number

 Reynolds Number
 Froude Number

 These numbers help us to understand the different

type of fluid flow, fluid properties and the
mechanism by which entrained particles move.
1) Reynolds Number

V is the average velocity of the fluid.

R e = ρVR h / μ Rh is the hydraulic radius of the channel.

Laminar flow: Re < 500.

Transitional flow: 500-12500
Turbulent flow: Re > 12,500.

Most open-channel flows involve water (which has a

fairly small viscosity) and have relatively large
characteristic lengths, it is uncommon to have laminar
open-channel flows.
10
Reynolds classified the flow type according to the motion of the fluid.

Laminar Flow: every fluid molecule

followed a straight path that was parallel to
the boundaries of the tube.

Transitional Flow: every fluid molecule

followed wavy but parallel path that was
not parallel to the boundaries of the tube.

Turbulent Flow: every fluid molecule

followed very complex path that led to a
mixing of the dye.

15
• The flow is laminar if the viscous forces are so
strong relative to the inertial forces that viscosity
plays a significant part in determining flow behavior.
In laminar flow, the water particles appear to move in
definite smooth paths, or streamlines, and
infinitesimally thin layers of fluid seem to slide over
adjacent layers.
• The flow is turbulent if the viscous forces are weak
relative to the inertial forces. In turbulent flow the
water particles move in irregular paths, which are
neither smooth nor fixed but which in the aggregate
still represent the forward motion of the entire
stream.
• Between the laminar and turbulent status there is a
mixed, or transitional state.
• An open channel flow is laminar if the Reynolds
number Re is small and turbulent if Re is large.
 2 ) F r o u d e N
u m b e r
The Froude number is a dimensionless number
proportional to the square root of the ratio of the
inertial forces over the weight of fluid:

Fr = fluid inertial forces .

gravitational forces in flow
• It compares the tendency of a moving fluid (and a
particle borne by that fluid) to continue moving
with the gravitational forces that act to stop that
motion

Fr = V / gl

Critical Flow: Froude number Fr =1.

Subcritical Flow: Froude number Fr <1.
Super critical Flow: Froude number Fr >1.
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• When Fr2 is equal to unity:
V2=gd, and the flow is said to be critical state.
• If Fr2 is less than unity, or V < gd, the flow is sub
critical. In this state the role played by gravity force
is more pronounced; so the flow has low velocity and
is often described as tranquil and streaming.
• If Fr2 is greater than unity, or V > gd, the flow is
supercritical. In this state the inertia forces become
dominant; so the flow has high velocity and is
usually described as rapid, shooting, and torrential.
 Basic Hydraulic Principles
 Geometric Elements of Channel Section

• Geometric elements are properties of a channel section

that can be defined entirely by the geometry of the section
and depth of flow.
• These elements are very important and are used
extensively in flow computation.
• The definition of several geometric elements of basic
importance are given below.
• Depth of flow (y) :is the vertical distance of the lowest point of a channel
section from the free surface.
• Depth of flow section (d) :depth of flow normal to direction of flow.
• Stage (h) :elevation of the free surface from a datum.
• Top width ( T) :width of the channel section at the free surface.
• Wetted area (A) :cross sectional area of flow normal to the direction of flow.
• Wetted perimeter (p): length of the line of intersection of the channel wetted
surface with a cross sectional plane normal to the direction of flow.
• Hydraulic radius (R): ratio of wetted area to its wetted perimeter.
R= A/p
• Hydraulic depth (D): ratio of wetted area to the top width.
D=A/T
 Continuity principle
• Matter cannot be created nor destroyed.
• Hence, fluid must be entering a control volume at the same rate at
which it leaves.
• Rate implies a rate of mass transfer.
• For incompressible fluid ‘rate’ can be interpreted as rate volumetric
transfer.
• Therefore, the equation of continuity for steady flow of an
incompressible fluid is given by

 
Q  V1 A1  V2 A2
• A = the cross-sectional area in sections 1 and 2,
• V = the mean velocity in sections 1 and 2
Application of the continuity principle to unsteady channel flow
• In unsteady open channel flow the water surface will change over a
certain distance ∆X and during a certain time ∆t.
•During ∆t : Inflow-Outflow = Storage

•As the velocity and the discharge will change over a distance.
Q t  y x BS
•If y is the water depth and Bs the width at the water surface, then


x : Q  Q2  Q1  Q / x x.
•Hence, equation of continuity for

the increase of volume between the sections 1 and 2 during time
unsteady open channel flow will
become

Q y
 BS 0
x t
 Reading Assignment
Energy Principle
• The energy equation is used in addition to the continuity equation
in analyzing fluid-flow situations. It is derived from Newton’s
second law of motion.

Momentum Principle
• According to Newton's second law of motion, the change of
momentum per unit of time in the body of water in a flowing
channel is equal to the resultant of all the external forces that are
acting on the body.
 Specific Energy and Critical Depth

• If the datum coincides with the channel bed at the

cross-section, the resulting expression is know as
specific energy and is denoted by E.
• Thus, specific energy is the energy at a cross-section of
an open channel flow with respect to the channel bed.
• The “Specific energy” is the average energy per unit
weight of water with respect to the channel bottom.
• the specific energy is the sum of the water-depth (y) and
the velocity head, if the streamlines are straight and
parallel. V2
ES  y  
2g
• For a given section and constant discharge (Q),
the specific energy is a function of water-depth
only, since Q=vA
 E . y 
2
Q
s
2 g y 2 BS2

• When the depth of flow is plotted against the

specific energy for a given channel section and
discharge, a specific-energy curve is obtained
(figure).
• Two Limbs, (AC & CB) Line , OD (450)
• At any point P on this curve, the ordinate represents the depth, and the
abscissa represents the specific energy Which is equal to the sum of the
pressure head y and the velocity head V2/2g.
 Cont.

• The curve shows that for a certain discharge Q two flow regimes
are possible, viz. slow and deep flow or a fast and shallow flow,
• i.e. for a given specific energy, there are two possible depths, for
instance, the low stage y1 and the high stage y2.
• The low stage is called the alternate depth of the high stage, and
vice versa.
• At pint C, the specific energy is minimum. It can be proved that
this condition of minimum specific energy corresponds to the
critical state of flow.
• Thus, at the critical state the two alternate depths apparently
become one, which is known as the critical depth (YC).
 The Critical Flow Condition
• The condition of minimum specific energy is known as the
critical flow condition and the corresponding depth yc is
2
known as critical depth. E  y  Q
S
2g A2

• At critical depth, the specific energy is minimum. Thus

differentiating the above Equ. with
d E
respect
Q
to
dA
y (keeping Q1
2

constant) and equating to zero, dy  1 g A dy

S
3

• The differential water area dA near the free surface is equal

to Tdy i.e. dA/dy=T, So the above equation becomes.
 The basic equation governing the critical flow conditions in a channel
Critical Depth and Velocity for Rectangular Section
 Exercise: 1
A flow of 5.0 m3/sec is passing at a depth of 1.2m through
a rectangular channel of width 2.0 m. What is the specific
energy of the flow? What is the value of the alternate
depth to the existing depth?
 Exercise: 2

A rectangular channel 3 m wide has a specific energy of 1.7

m when carrying a discharge of 5 m3/sec. Calculate the
alternate depths and corresponding Froude numbers.

B=3
 Transitions
Channel with a Hump
a) Subcritical Flow
Consider a horizontal, frictionless rectangular channel of
width B carrying discharge Q at depth y1.
Let the flow be subcritical. At a section 2 (Fig. below) a
smooth hump of height ΔZ is built on the floor. Since
there are no energy losses between sections 1 and 2,
construction of a hump causes the specific energy at
section 2 to decrease by ΔZ.

Channel Transition with a Hump

• Thus the specific energies at sections 1 and 2 are,

• Since the flow is subcritical, the water surface will drop

due to a decrease in the specific energy. In (Fig. below),
the water surface which was at P at section 1 will come
down to point R at section 2. The depth y2 will be given
by,

Specific energy diagram

It is easy to see from Fig. (5.13) that as the value of ΔZ is
increased, the depth at section 2, y2, will decrease. The
minimum depth is reached when the point R coincides with C,
the critical depth. At this point the hump height will be
maximum, ΔZmax, y2 = yc = critical depth, and E2 = Ec =
minimum energy for the flowing discharge Q. The condition at
ΔZmax is given by the relation,

The question may arise as to what happens when ΔZ > ΔZmax.

 b) Supercritical Flow

If y1 is in the supercritical flow regime, (Fig. below) shows

that the depth of flow increases due to the reduction of
specific energy. In Fig. (5.13) point P` corresponds to y1
and point R` to depth at the section 2. Up to the critical
depth, y2 increases to reach yc at ΔZ = ΔZmax. For ΔZ >
ΔZmax , the depth over the hump y2 = yc will remain
constant and the upstream depth y1 will change. It will
decrease to have a higher specific energy E1`by increasing
velocity V1. The variation of the depths y1 and y2 with ΔZ
in the supercritical flow is shown in Fig. (5.15).

Variation of y1 and y2 in supercritical flow over a hump

 Uniform Flow
Uniform flow in open channels has the following main characteristics

a.the depth, water area, velocity, and discharge at every section of the
channel are constant;
b.the energy line, water surface, and channel bottom are all parallel;
i.e. their slopes are all equal Sf = Sw = So

 Uniform flow is considered to be steady only, since unsteady

uniform flow is practically nonexistent. In natural streams,
even steady uniform flow is rare, for rivers and streams in
natural states scarcely ever experience a strict uniform flow
condition.
 Establishment of uniform flow
• When flow occurs in an open channel, the water
encounters resistance as it flows downstream.
• This resistance is generally counteracted by the
components of gravity forces acting on the body of the
water in the direction of motion.
• A uniform flow will be developed if the resistance is
balanced by the gravity forces
• In general, uniform flow can occur only in very long,
straight, prismatic channels where a terminal velocity of
flow can be achieved.
Computation of Uniform flow
The Manning equation is given by the SI
system of units
Where
V = 1/n R
V = average velocity
R = hydraulic radius
2/3
S1/2
S = channel longitudinal slope
n = Channel roughness /resistance
 Example 1
Find the velocity of flow and rate of flow
of water through a rectangular channel of
6m wide and 3m deep, when it is running
full. The channel is having bed slope as
Example 2
1:2000. take chezy’s constant C=55. Ans.
Find the bottom slope for a rectangular channel which have 3m width and 2m
V= 1.5m/s
depth. Q=27.1
The unit flow rate m3/s
is 1.5 m2/s. take manning roughness of the channel 0.04.