Section 4

Recap
a)What is the function of the basal nuclei?
b)Which brain area processes the sensation of fear?
c)Define long term potentiation.
d)Name the three parts of the cerebellum.
e)Describe the way in which reflexes can be
categorized.
Answers
a) (1) inhibit muscle tone, (2) maintain purposeful
motor activity while suppressing useless patterns
of movement, and (3) coordinate slow, sustained
movements related to posture
b) Amygdala
c) With long-term potentiation, in response to
increased use at a given pre-existing synapse,
modifications take place in the postsynaptic
neuron and/or presynaptic neuron that enhance
the future ability of the presynaptic neuron to
excite the postsynaptic neuron.
d) Vestibulocerebellum, spinocerebellum,
cerebrocerebellum
e) (1) as spinal or cranial, (2) as innate or
conditioned, (3) as somatic or autonomic, and (4)
as monosynaptic or polysynaptic
 The Peripheral Nervous
System: Afferent Division
The PNS has nerve fibers that
carry information between the
CNS and body regions. It afferent
division sends information about
the external and internal
environment to the CNS.
• Visceral afferent pathways convey
subconscious information from the internal
viscera.
• Sensory information is conveyed to the level
of conscious awareness. It is sensory
afferent.
• Sensory information can be either a somatic
sensation from the skin or proprioception
from the muscles, joints, skin, and inner.
This information can also involve the special
Perception is the
conscious awareness of
the external world.
• It is created by the brain from a
pattern of nerve impulses sent to the
brain from sensory receptors.

• The brain interprets an input. Human

perceptions do not replicate reality.
Receptors are structures at
the peripheral endings of
afferent neurons. Receptors
detect stimuli.
• Each type of receptor has an adequate
stimulus. Types of receptors are:
• photoreceptor - respond to visible wavelength of
light
• mechanoreceptor - sensitive to mechanical
energy
• thermoreceptor - sensitive to heat and cold
• osmoreceptor - detect changes in the
concentration of solutes in body fluids
• chemoreceptor - sensitive to specific chemicals
such as the concentration of oxygen in the blood
• nociceptor - a pain receptor that is sensitive to
tissue damage
 A stimulus alters the membrane
permeability of the cells of a receptor.
This leads to the production of a graded
receptor potential.
• The receptor can be a specialized ending of an afferent
neuron or a cell closely associated with the peripheral
ending of a neuron.
• This change in membrane permeability can lead to the
influx of sodium ions. This produces receptor (generator)
potentials.
• The magnitude of the receptor potential represents the
intensity of the stimulus.
• A receptor potential of sufficient magnitude can produce
an action potential. This action potential is propagated
along an afferent fiber to the CNS.
 By adaptation receptors can adjust to
sustained stimulation. With sustained
stimulus length, the extent of receptor
depolarization decreases. This adaption
can be slow or rapid.

• Tonic receptors
adapt slowly or do
not adapt.
• Phasic receptors
adapt rapidly.
• The Pacinian
corpuscle detects
pressure and
vibrations in the
skin. It adapts
rapidly.
 Tonic receptors Phasic receptors
Tonic receptors do not adapt or slow to Phasic receptors are rapidly adapting
adapt

Despite sustained stimulus =

There is sustained stimulus response decreases/stop
there is a reduced response to the stimulus, but there is still a
response.

Continue to respond to stimulus generate

action potential to relay Information to the CNS. The frequency of action potentials diminishes
or stop if the stimulus is unchanging.

Constant rate of firing /Keep sending an AP as long as Eg. of phasic receptor: After time, no longer respond to constant
stimulus is applied. stimulus. tactile (touch). When you put something on your watch,
you soon become accustomed to it because of these receptors’
rapid adaptation.
 Sensory
receptor in
human skin
 Afferent pathways reaching the
spinal cord can be part of a reflex
arc or can be relayed to the brain
by ascending pathways.
• Somatosensory pathways convey conscious
somatic sensations.
• A receptor detects a stimulus. A specific
receptor detects a specific stimulus for each kind
of sense modality.
• A first-order sensory neuron sends a signal from
the receptor to the spinal cord.
• The first-order neuron synapses with a second-
order neuron in the spinal cord or medulla.
• The second-order neuron synapses with a third-
order neuron in the thalamus.
• Each afferent and ascending pathway excites a
defined area of the cerebral cortex.
 Acuity for a sensation
refers to discriminative
ability.
• The smaller the
receptive field for a
sense on the skin
surface, the greater the
acuity. The receptive
field is a circumscribed
area of the skin
surrounding the point of
stimulation.
• Lateral inhibition also
influences receptor
acuity from the skin.
The center of a stimulus
inhibits less excited
areas on the fringe of the
stimulus.
Stimulation of nociceptors
produces the perception of
pain.
• Motivational and emotional responses
also affect the perception of pain.
• There are three categories of pain
receptors.
• mechanical receptors respond to
mechanical damage
• thermal receptors respond to
temperature extremes
• polymodal nociceptors respond to
damaging stimuli
There are fast and slow
afferent pain fibers.
• A-delta fibers fire at rates of 30 meters
per second.
• C fibers fire at 12 meters per second.

• There is a higher-level processing of

pain input.
• Ascending pathways for pain are in the
somatosensory cortex, thalamus, and
reticular formation. The brain has a
built-in analgesic system.
Section 5
The senses
The eye is a sensory organ
for vision. It has receptors
that detect light.

• Mechanisms that protect the eye

include the action of the eyelashes,
secretion of tears from the lacrimal
glands, and the eyelashes.
The eye is a fluid-filled sphere
enclosed by three specialized
tissue layers.
• The sclera is a tough outer covering of connective tissue. It
surrounds the cornea anteriorly. Light passing through the
eye passes through the cornea first.
• The middle layer is the choroid with blood vessels. It is
specialized anteriorly into the, ciliary body, suspensory
ligaments and iris.
• The retina is the innermost layer. It has cells named rods
and cones.
• Inside the eye, the lens separates the aqueous humor
(anteriorly, carries nutrients) and the vitreous body
(posteriorly, maintains the eyeball shape).
• The aqueous humor is produced from the ciliary body and
drains into the blood at the edge of the cornea.
The iris is circular and pigmented. It is two
layers of smooth muscle that control the
amount of light passing through the pupil and
into the eye.
• Its circular muscle constricts the pupil. Its radial
muscle dilates the pupil.
• Structures of the eye refract incoming light,
focusing the image properly on the inside surface of
the retina.
• Light rays diverge from every point of a viewed light
source.
• Convex structures of the eye produce convergence
of these diverging rays.
The cornea and lens are
refractive structures of the
eye.

• They offer convex surfaces to

focus diverging light rays. By
converging these light rays,
they bring the light rays to an
optimal position on the focal
point of the retina.
• As a viewed object becomes
closer, the convexity of the
lens increases.
• As a viewed becomes more
distant, the convexity of the
lens decreases.
Accommodation is the change of the
strength and shape of the lens. The
shape of the lens changes for
focusing on images of varying
distance from the eye.
• The action of the ciliary muscle and suspensory
ligaments change the shape of the lens during
accommodation.
• As the ciliary muscle contracts, the tension on
the suspensory ligaments decreases. The lens
assumes a more spherical shape. This occurs
during accommodation on a closer object being
viewed.
• As the muscle relaxes, the tension on the
suspensory ligaments increases. The lens
flattens somewhat. This occurs during
accommodation on a more distant object being
viewed.
Light passes through several
retinal layers before reaching
retinal receptors.
• Photoreceptors transform light into electrical signals for
transmission to the CNS.
• Rods and cones are retinal cells closest to the choroid.
Only cones are found in the fovea of the retina. This is the
point of most distinct vision. The fovea is surrounded by
the macula lutea.
• There is a middle layer of bipolar cells in the retina.
• Ganglion cells are on the other side of the middle layer.
Their axons join to form the optic nerve which exits from
the eye at the optic disc.
 Phototransduction is the
conversion of light stimuli
into neural signals.
• A photoreceptor consists of three
parts: an outer segment, an inner
segment, and a synaptic terminal.
• Photoreceptors are found in the
outer segment.
• Rhodopsin is the pigment found in
rods. Rods are cells that have
chemically-gated sodium channels
that open in the absence of light.
Rods are active, producing gray
vision in the dark.
• The three photopigments in the
cones are: red, green, and blue.
They respond selectively to various
wavelengths of light, making color
vision possible. The cones are
active cells, producing sharp color
vision in the presence of light.
• Color vision depends on the ratio of
stimulation of the three types of
cones.
The sensitivity of the eyes
varies through dark and
light adaptation.
• By dark adaptation you can gradually
distinguish objects as you enter a dark
area. It is due to the regeneration of
rod photopigments that had been
broken down by previous light
exposure.
• By light adaptation you can gradually
distinguish objects as you enter an
area with more light. It is due to the
rapid breakdown of cone
photopigments.
Visual information is modified
and separated before
reaching the visual cortex on
the occipital lobe.

• The information reaching the visual

cortex is not a replica of the visual
field.
• The thalamus and visual cortexes
elaborate the visual message.
• There is a hierarchy of visual
processing.
• Visual processing goes to other areas
The ear consists of the
external, middle, and inner
ear.
• The external and middle ear transmit sound waves
to the fluid-filled inner ears.
• In the inner ear the cochlea has receptors that
convert sound waves into nerve impulses.
• The vestibular apparatus of the inner ear is involved
with the sense of equilibrium.
• Each inner ear region has mechanoreceptors.
For hearing hair cells in the
cochlea are disturbed by
vibrations from airborne sound
waves. Mechanical deformations
of these hair cells produce action
potentials that travel to the brain.

• The external ear plays a role in sound

localization. It consists of the pinna,
external auditory meatus, and
tympanum.
• The tympanum vibrates in unison
with sound waves of the external ear.
Sound waves consist of
alternating regions of
compression and
rarefaction of air
molecules.
• The pitch of sound depends on the
frequency of air waves.
• The loudness of sound depends on
the amplitude of air waves.
• The timbre of sound is determined by
overtones.
 Middle ear bones conduct a
signal (vibrations) from the
tympanic membrane to the inner
ear.
• The inner ear amplifies
tympanic movements
and transmits them to
the oval window.
• The movement of the
oval window produces
waves that travel
through the fluid in the
cochlea. The cochlea
contains the organ of
Corti, the sense organ
for hearing.
Waves in the cochlea fluid
move the basilar
membrane in the cochlea.

• These waves have the same frequency

as the sound waves in the air.
• Different frequencies of waves disturb
different parts of the membrane.
• Hair cells are mounted on the basilar
membrane. They are reflected in
relation to an overhanging tectorial
membrane. Different groups of hair
cells move to different frequencies.
Pitch discrimination
depends on the region of
the basilar membrane that
vibrates.
• A mechanical change in a group of
hair cells is changed into neural
signals.
• They are transmitted to the auditory
cortex of the temporal lobe of the
brain.
• The brain interprets this incoming
series of signals for sound
perception.
The semicircular canals of the
vestibular apparatus detect
rotational acceleration or
deceleration changes in the body.
• The utricle and saccule of the vestibular
apparatus detect changes in the rate of
linear motion in any direction.
The structures of the
vestibular apparatus have
hair cells that are sensitive to
mechanical deformation.

• These cells are sensitive to fluid

shifts and the movement of other
structures, such as otoliths in the
saccule and utricle.
• Neural signals are generated by
changes in these hair cells. These
cells are transmitted to the brain for
interpretation.
Chemoreceptors detect chemical
changes for the senses of taste
and smell.
• Taste receptors are located within taste buds in the tongue.
Dissolved molecules bind to receptor sites producing receptor
potentials.
• All tastes are varying combinations of the four basic tastes: salt,
sweet, sweet, and bitter. A fifth taste has been recognized.
• Any chemical produces the differential stimulation of the four
receptors for taste.
• This generates a pattern of action potentials that travels along
afferent pathways to the brain.
• One pathway passes through the limbic system for emotional and
behavioral processing. Another pathway passes through the
thalamus to the cerebral cortex for conscious processing.
Olfactory receptors in the nose
are specialized ending of afferent
neurons.
• Different olfactory receptors detect discrete parts of
an odor.

• Odor discrimination is coded by patterns of activity

in the olfactory bulb glomeruli. Afferent signals are
sorted by scent component.

• The olfactory system adapts quickly

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mFm3yA1nslE
&pp=ygUSY3Jhc2ggY291cnNlIHNlbnNl
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ie2j7GpC4JU&
pp=ygUSY3Jhc2ggY291cnNlIHNlbnNl
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o0DYP-u1rNM
&pp=ygUSY3Jhc2ggY291cnNlIHNlbnNl
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=unWnZvXJH2o
&pp=ygUSY3Jhc2ggY291cnNlIHNlbnNl