Selection of Materials For FPE

Selection of materials for food
machinery
Introduction
 Hygienic (sanitary) design of food processing equipment
involves selection of appropriate materials of construction and
design, fabrication, and operation of the equipment that will
ensure the safety of the food products from microbial and
other contaminations and preserve the food quality
 The properties and cost of materials of construction are very

important factors in the design, construction, operation, and
maintenance of general processing equipment
Introduction
 The main materials being used for food processing equipment are
metals, plastics, and glass–ceramics. Furthermore, wood and some

natural fibers are used in some special applications.
 The materials used in the construction of food equipment must
have the following properties:

 Mechanical strength,
 Easy to fabricate,
 Easy to repair,
 Resistance to corrosion,
 Hygienic properties, and
 Desirable thermal properties

Cont…
 The mechanical strength is especially important in the
construction of equipment used in processing of large

quantities in a relatively short time, e.g., in seasonal processing
 Strength is usually more important in
 In the first stages of processing, in which large amounts of raw
material have to be processed

 When material stress is involved, such as in loaded tanks and silos
and in abrasion during cutting, milling, and pneumatic transport of

grain
 For protection against abrasion, hardening of the surface of the
Cont…
 In fabrication and repair of food processing equipment, the
hardness and welding ability of the materials are also important

 The resistance against corrosion is especially important in
 wet processing (e.g., canning industry) and
 processing of foods or food ingredients of relatively low pH, which may
attack the equipment materials and when corrosive chemicals are used, e.g.,
caustic solutions for peeling, SO2 for preservation, and cleaning chemicals
 Corrosion of food processing equipment can be:
1. Uniform corrosion (e.g., oxidation due to humidity),
2. Pitting (tiny holes on the surface of the metals, due to the attack of aqueous
solutions containing chlorides)
Cont…
3. Stress corrosion (e.g., overloading of pumps and grinding machines),
4. Intergranular corrosion (due to high temperature during welding), and
5. Galvanic corrosion (due to the direct contact of dissimilar metals)
The materials that are used for food processing and preservation
equipment may come directly in contact with the food or may be part
of supporting elements of machines and structures without contacting
food at all
Nevertheless, due to strict measures taken for protecting food from
contamination, even materials not coming in direct contact with food

should fulfill the hygienic conditions established by regulations for
food protection
Cont…
For materials of equipment that come directly in contact with
food, the hygienic regulations are to a great extent the same as

the regulations for food containers and packaging materials
The hygienic (sanitary) materials do not exchange components
with the food, i.e., they do not contaminate the food or absorb
components of the processed product
 They should have smooth or polished surfaces, not react with
detergents, and they should be cleaned easily
Thermal properties are important when heat transfer to and
from the processed products must take place (e.g., pasteurization

of liquids in tubes, cooling down food in plate freezers).
Table 1.1 properties of construction materials
Metals
 The most important materials used in the construction of food
processing equipment.
 Can be classified as:
 Ferrous metals and their alloys and
 Nonferrous metals
 The nonferrous metals are either used in the construction of
equipment and in equipment parts coming directly in contact

with food or are included in alloys or in chemicals that are used
for influencing the properties of other materials (e.g., paints,
plastics)
Cont….
Steel
The ferrous metals used for food processing equipment are carbon
steel, low-alloy steel, cast iron, stainless steel, and cast stainless
steel. Stainless steel is the main material used in direct contact with
food.
Carbon steel and low-alloy steel are used only in special cases in
direct contact with food, e.g., in the edible oil industry (mills,
presses, and oil tanks at temperatures below 150 oC), in preliminary
processes of the canning industry (e.g., cleaning of raw potatoes),
and in sorting of fruits and vegetables in packing houses
Cont….
 Carbon is the main component (0.03–1.7 %) that influences the
strength of steel
 Increasing the carbon content causes an increase of the alloy
tensile strength (e.g., the steel strength is tripled when 0.9 %

carbon is added), a reduction of strain (down14-fold when
more than 1.6 % carbon is added), an increase of hardness (up
to 3.5-fold), and a reduction of welding ability
 The addition of elements such as Cr, Ni, Mn, Mo, Ni, or Ti
leads to alloyed metals, which have enhanced properties

Cont….
Stainless Steels
 Stainless steels are characterized, in general, by chromium
content higher than 12 % and by their passivity, i.e., the ability

to form an impervious surface coating, which inhibits corrosion
 High-grade stainless steel: is the most important type of steel
used in direct contact with food in constructing food processing

equipment
 Austenitic stainless steel: containing nickel (Ni > 3.5 %), is
mainly used, because this type is more corrosion resistant and

more ductile
Cont….
 Both types of stainless steel are resistant to oxidation and acids.
Their resistance against lye is similar to that of carbon steel.

Therefore, HNO3 and NaOH solutions may be used to an
advantage in cleaning processes (CIP).
 Both materials are not very resistant against halogens (Cl), which
cause pitting especially at high temperatures and low pH values

 However, in heating or cooling fluids, the low conductivity of
stainless steel does not influence heat transfer very much, since the
thickness of the metal sheets in heat exchangers is small and the
effect of other factors (viscosity and fluid velocity) is much more
pronounced
Metals cont….
Aluminum
 The most widely used nonferrous metal for food processing
equipment
 Has the advantages of high strength-to-weight ratio, nonmagnetic
properties, good thermal and electrical conductivity, and resistance

to corrosive environments
 Commercially pure (>99.5 % Al) wrought metal (DIN 1712, Sheet
3, American Aluminum Association, AA 1060) is used in tanks for

storage and transportation of milk and beer, acetic acid, and alcohol
Cont.....
 Its alloys are used in supporting constructions. Since its strength
remains stable at temperatures down to about -250oC and its

thermal conductivity is high, it is often used for food freezing
equipment (e.g., plate food freezers)
 However, its strength is remarkably reduced at temperatures
above 150oC. The tensile strength of commercially pure

aluminum is 69 MPa. Its strength increases through cold working
 The strength of aluminum alloys (e.g., duralumin) is greater than
that of the pure metal, but their resistance to corrosion is lower

Cont....
Therefore, in some cases, aluminum alloys are plated by pure
aluminum metal to avoid direct contact with the food.

The tensile strength of its alloy may approach that of low-alloy
steel. It is very resistant against oxidation in humid air, but it is

attacked by strong caustic solutions and acids
 Cleaning substances containing lye can be handled only if
inhibitors (e.g., sodium metal silicate) are used.

Cont…
Copper
Copper is characterized by its very good electrical and heat
conduction properties and its low-temperature (-250 oC) strength

It is used in some equipment that comes directly in contact with food,
e.g., beer brewing ingredients that have a pH below 6 in the

prefermentation and fermentation steps of beer brewing
It may also be used in processing of chocolate and confectionery, if
the manufactured products do not contain acid substances

It has been used in the past in the processing of jams and tomatoes,
but, due to the oxidation of ascorbic acid, it has been replaced by

stainless steel
Cont…
 Because of its relatively good corrosion resistance against
nonoxidizing acids, copper is used in equipment employed in

starch hydrolysis with dilute hydrochloric acid
 The tensile strength of copper is about 360 MPa. Copper alloys,
such as brasses and bronzes (>60 % Cu), are stronger than pure
copper.
 Brasses are virtually not used for food equipment, but bronzes
(especially aluminum and silicon bronzes) are often used in

valves, taps, and other cast parts of equipment
 Bronze is used in some food equipment after plating with
nonoxidized metals (e.g., Ni, Cr).

Other Metals
 Tin is used as a constituent of copper alloys and in coating steel or
copper so as to avoid their direct contact with food. Nickel and

chromium are constituent metals in steel and copper alloys. The
addition of Ni increases toughness and corrosion resistance of steel
alloys. Chromium increases strength and hardness.
 Monel 400 is a nickel–copper alloy (67 % Ni) that has good
strength and quite good corrosion resistance properties against

alkalis, organic acids, and salt (brine solutions).
 It is more expensive than stainless steel, but it may be used in
reducing conditions, in which stainless steel would be unsuitable

Plastics–Rubber
 Plastics are usually resistant to corrosion, but their mechanical
strength is limited (Table1.1. Furthermore, their strength depends

strongly on the temperature of the material.
 The upper temperature application limit of most temperature-resistant
plastics lies at 250 oC. Therefore, in food processing equipment,

plastics are mainly used for coating and parts that are not under high
and continuous stress (e.g., parts of ventilators and pumps, pipes,
fittings, small tanks, covers of vessels, filters, gaskets).
 In all cases, plastics must fulfill the requirements concerning the
interaction of materials with food.

Cont…
 Plastics, as construction materials, can be divided into two main
categories: thermoplastic and thermosetting materials

 Examples of commonly used thermoplastics are poly(vinyl
chloride) (PVC), polyethylene, and poly (tetrafluoroethylene)
(PTFE; Teflon).
 Depending on the plasticizers added, plastics could become softer
or harder. Polyethylene, for example, can be distinguished into

low- and high-density material. The tensile strength of low-density
polyethylene is 15 MPa, while that of the high-density material is
about double
Cont…..
 polyethylene can be used at temperatures up to 100 oC, while
the high-density material can be applied at temperatures up to
130 oC.
 PTFE has relatively low mechanical strength, but it is used
when high temperatures prevail, as it withstands temperatures
up to 250 oC.
 Examples of thermosetting materials are polyester and the
epoxy resins. The tensile strength for polyester is 40–100 MPa
and, for epoxy resins, it may reach 200 Mpa

Cont…
 Epoxy resins are also used as adhesive of plastic or even metal
equipment parts. However, in this case, the application
temperature should not exceed 100–180 oc

 Rubber is used as part of equipment or machines coming
directly in contact with food (e.g., gaskets, filters), as parts that
must withstand friction (e.g., pumps), and in coating of metals.

 Rubber must be as pure as possible. Hard rubber has a tensile
strength of 70–100 MPa

 In conveyor belts, canvas may be more preferable than rubber
Glass–Ceramics
 Glass and ceramics are very resistant to acids and sufficiently resistant
against lye. They are very hard and can withstand pressure of 100–400 MPa.
However, they are very sensitive to bending (fragile). Their thermal
conductivity is 0.62–1.45 W/m K.

 They are used in coating of other stable materials (e.g., in bins, vats) and in
the construction of pipes and processing equipment for very sensitive
products.
 Ceramics are also used in filtration (e.g., sand, porous silicate bodies), in
ultrafiltration, and for insulation (glass wool). They can be used in enameling
of metals to protect against corrosion (e.g., storage tanks) and for glass-fiber-
reinforced plastics.
cont…
 Polyester resins, reinforced with glass fiber, have a relatively
good strength up to 130 C, are resistant to several chemicals, and

can be easily formed. Therefore, they are often used for fittings
and valves in connection with plastic pipes and vats.
 Ceramics can be also used in cutting blades, lasting longer than
simple steel blades

Wood
 Wood was used in the past for the fabrication of various food
processing equipment, but its use has been discontinued, due to
hygienic (sanitary) and mechanical strength problems.

 At the present time, wood is used as an inexpensive material in
some traditional food processes, such as fermentation tanks and
storage containers for wine, pickles, and olives.

 The high acidity and the high salt (NaCl) content of brines in
some of these products can cause severe corrosion problems
even for expensive metallic construction materials, such as
stainless steel.

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Selection of materials for food

 The properties and cost of materials of construction are very

metals, plastics, and glass–ceramics. Furthermore, wood and some

have the following properties:

 Hygienic properties, and

 Desirable thermal properties

construction of equipment used in processing of large

 In the ﬁrst stages of processing, in which large amounts of raw

material have to be processed

and in abrasion during cutting, milling, and pneumatic transport of

hardness and welding ability of the materials are also important

 processing of foods or food ingredients of relatively low pH, which may

contamination, even materials not coming in direct contact with food

food, the hygienic regulations are to a great extent the same as

from the processed products must take place (e.g., pasteurization

 Ferrous metals and their alloys and

 The nonferrous metals are either used in the construction of

equipment and in equipment parts coming directly in contact

tensile strength (e.g., the steel strength is tripled when 0.9 %

leads to alloyed metals, which have enhanced properties

content higher than 12 % and by their passivity, i.e., the ability

used in direct contact with food in constructing food processing

mainly used, because this type is more corrosion resistant and

Their resistance against lye is similar to that of carbon steel.

cause pitting especially at high temperatures and low pH values

properties, good thermal and electrical conductivity, and resistance

3, American Aluminum Association, AA 1060) is used in tanks for

remains stable at temperatures down to about -250oC and its

above 150oC. The tensile strength of commercially pure

that of the pure metal, but their resistance to corrosion is lower

aluminum metal to avoid direct contact with the food.

steel. It is very resistant against oxidation in humid air, but it is

inhibitors (e.g., sodium metal silicate) are used.

conduction properties and its low-temperature (-250 oC) strength

e.g., beer brewing ingredients that have a pH below 6 in the

the manufactured products do not contain acid substances

but, due to the oxidation of ascorbic acid, it has been replaced by

nonoxidizing acids, copper is used in equipment employed in

(especially aluminum and silicon bronzes) are often used in

nonoxidized metals (e.g., Ni, Cr).

copper so as to avoid their direct contact with food. Nickel and

strength and quite good corrosion resistance properties against

reducing conditions, in which stainless steel would be unsuitable

strength is limited (Table1.1. Furthermore, their strength depends

plastics lies at 250 oC. Therefore, in food processing equipment,

interaction of materials with food.

categories: thermoplastic and thermosetting materials

or harder. Polyethylene, for example, can be distinguished into

the high-density material can be applied at temperatures up to

when high temperatures prevail, as it withstands temperatures

epoxy resins. The tensile strength for polyester is 40–100 MPa

and, for epoxy resins, it may reach 200 Mpa

equipment parts. However, in this case, the application

temperature should not exceed 100–180 oc

directly in contact with food (e.g., gaskets, ﬁlters), as parts that

must withstand friction (e.g., pumps), and in coating of metals.

strength of 70–100 MPa

However, they are very sensitive to bending (fragile). Their thermal

conductivity is 0.62–1.45 W/m K.