Table Of Contents

 Springs
 Types of Springs
 Stresses in Springs
 Strength of Springs
 End Connections
 Laminated springs
 Construction of laminated spring
 Spring Eyes
 Leaf Ends
 Fatigue Loading
 Causes and analysis for Fatigue Failur
Springs
Definition

Springs may be broadly define as “structures

or devices that exhibit elastic deformation
when loaded and recover their initial
configuration when the load is removed.”
APPLICATION

The various important applications of

springs are as follows;
1. To measure forces as in spring balances
and engine indicators
2.To control ,motion by maintaining contact
between two elements as in cams and
followers.
3.To store energy as in watches and toys,
etc.
Basic Types

 Helical Springs

 Conical
Volute Springs.

 Torsion
Springs

 Laminated or
Leaf Springs.

 Belleville or
Disc Springs

 Pneumatic
Springs
Helical Spring

 The Helical Springs are made up of a

wire coiled in the form of a helix and
is primarily intended for compressive
or tensile loads.

 The cross section of the wire from

which the spring is made may circular,
square or rectangular.
Types Of Helical Spring

• Tension spring
• Compression spring
Advantages

The helical springs has the following

advantages

• These are reliable

• The have constant spring rate
• There performance can be predicted
more accurately
• These are easy to manufacture
• These are available in wide range
Material For Helical Springs

The material of the spring should have ;

 High strength (ultimate, yield, fatigue) ,

 High resilience ,
 Good creep resistance
 Good corrosion resistance and / or
resistance to elevated temperature.
Suitable Materials
The materials meeting these criteria
include

 Carbon Steel ,
 Alloy Steel ,
 Stain Less Steel ,
 Brass ,
 Phosphor Bronze,
 Beryllium
 Copper and
 Nickel Alloys
Spring Geometry
 Spring Geometry

The primary spring geometric

design parameters are:

Free Length (Lo) - The length of the

unloaded spring.

Wire Diameter (d) - The diameter

of the wire that is wound into a
helix.

Coil Diameter (D) - The mean

diameter of the helix, i.e., (Douter +
Dinner)/2.

Total Coils (Nt)- The number of coils

or turns in the spring.
Terminology Of Helical Spring

 Active Coils (Na) - The number of coils which actually deform

when the spring is loaded, as opposed to the inactive turns at each
end which are in contact with the spring seat or base.
 Solid Length (Ls) - The minimum length of the spring, when
the load is sufficiently large to close all the gaps between the
coils.
 Pitch (p) - The distance from center to center of the wire in
adjacent active coils.
 Pitch Angle (a) - The angle between the coils and the base of the
spring. The pitch angle is calculated from the equation:
 Contd……….

 Outer Diameter (Do) - The outer diameter of the spring coil ,

 Inner Diameter (Di) - The inner diameter of the spring coil,

 Spring Index (C) - The ratio of mean coil diameter to wire diameter. A
low index indicates a tightly wound spring (a relatively large wire size
wound around a relatively small diameter mandrel giving a high rate).

 Shear Modulus (G) - A material property calculated from the

material's elastic modulus and Poisson ratio n,
Continued…
 Slenderness Ratio (Lo / D) - The ratio of spring length to mean coil diameter.
 Spring Rate (k) - The force required to produce a unit deflection, F/d. For
close-coiled helical springs the F-d characteristic is approximately linear and
can be calculated from the geometry and shear modulus of the spring:

 Maximum Deflection (dmax) - The deflection required to go from the free

length to the solid length of the spring,

 Maximum Load (Pmax) - The maximum force the spring can take occurs when
the spring is deformed all the way to its solid height,
Stress Analysis
 Stresses In Helical
Springs
In helical springs Types of stresses produced are:

1. Direct Shearing Stress (Transverse) due

to the load F
2. Torsional Shearing
Stress Mathematically
T tor – max = 16FR/πd3
Cont…
Stresses In Helical Springs
(Cont….)
 Cont ...

Where F= axial load on the spring

R = mean coil radius
d = wire diameter
The transverse shearing stress reaches a
maximum value at the mid height of the
wire cross-section and to have the
magnitude
T ts– max = 1.23F/Aw
Where Aw = πd2 / 4
Cont...
Further because of coil curvature , a slightly
larger shearing strain is produced at the inner
fiber of the coil ,than at the outer fiber,
including a slightly higher Torsional shearing
stress at the inner fiber. This stress increasing
curvature factor, Kc , may be estimated as
Kc = 4c -
1 /4c-4 Where c is spring
index
c is defined to
be
c
End Connection Of Helical
Spring
The end connections for compression
helical springs are suitably formed
in order to apply the loa
 Plan end
 Ground end
 Square end
 Squared and ground end
Leaf Or Laminated Springs
Laminated
Springs
 The laminated or leaf spring consists of
a number of flat plates of varying
lengths held together by means of
clamps and bolts.
 The advantage of leaf spring over helical
spring is that the ends of spring may be
guided along a definite path as it
deflects to acts as structural member in
addition to energy absorbing devise.
Functions
 Support the weight of the vehicle
 Provide adequate stability and
resistance to side way and rollover
 Connect the axle to the vehicle
 Transfer driving and braking forces
between frame and axle
Spring Eyes

Leaf spring eyes hold the bushings through

which bolts or pins pass through to
attach the spring to the vehicle. Spring
eyes can be Standard, Berlin or Reverse.
Each has it’s own features.
Spring Eyes
 Standard eyes are the most popular
and easiest to make. Main plates with
Standard eyes can receive additional
support by extending the second leaf or
a wrap plate.
 Berlin eyes places the load through the
centerline of the Main Plate, which
reduces lateral deflection.
Spring Eyes
 Reverse eyes will lower a vehicle
while providing maximum spring
travel.
 The disadvantage of Berlin and
Reverse eyes is that they cannot be
provided additional support from the
second leaf. How ever this may not
be required in most cases.
Fig-1
Leaf Ends

•The ends of the individual spring leaves

can be formed in three basic fashions.
Springs that are identical except for the
end finish will perform differently.
Square or constant
thickness ends are often
unsatisfactory for
automotive springs.
Concentrations of interleaf
pressures, friction and
stress result in a very poor
acting spring for lightweight
vehicles.
Diamond Point ends are the
same as square cut except
excess material on the ends
is cut off. Diamond
pointing will result in a
better- stressed spring.
This end is fine for working
truck applications.
Rolled ends gradually
decrease in thickness. The
reduced thickness at the
ends allow for increased
flexibility of the leaf end,
resulting in reduced stress
and interleaf friction.
Rolled ends produce the
smoothest acting spring.
 Compression Springs Subjected To Fatigue
Loading
 The loading which fluctuates continuously
is called fatigue or cyclic loading.

 Springs are almost always subjected to

fatigue loading and must be designed for
infinite numbers of cycles of operation.
Causes For Fatigue
Failure
 A poor surface is the worst handicap of hot-
formed springs.
 Badly pitted surface.
 A layer of decarburizing material on the
surface resulting from heat treatment.
 Corrosion also reduces the fatigue strength
of spring.
 Improper heat treatment may also results
in weakness of materials.
 Types Of Stresses.
 Completely reversed or cyclic stresses.
The stresses which vary from one
value of compression to the same value
of tensile or vice versa fig-a.
 Flucating stresses.
The stresses which vary from a minimum
value to a maximum value of same nature
i.e. either tensile or compressive fig-b.
 Repeated stresses.
The stresses which vary from zero to a
certain maximum value are called repeated
stresses fig-c.
Cont…

Fig-a Fig-b Fig-c

Analysis For Fatigue Loading
 Under fatigue loading springs are designed by
using *Soderberg line* method, under repeated
stresses.
 The Soderberg Criterion provides a way to
calculate a failure limit. The Soderberg Diagram plots
mean stress on one axis, and alternating stress on the
other, and draws a line between the Smean = Syield
and Salt = Sfatigue points,
 Design For Fatigue Loading
A dynamically loaded spring will
operate b/w two force levels
Pmax– Pmin

Favg = (Fmax – F min )/2

Mean load P mean  Pm

Fmean = (Fmax + F min)/2

A force ratio can also be defined

as
Rf= Fmax/ F min
In ordinary cases Rf has value
b/w
0<Rf<0.8
 Fluctuating Load

Since the springs are

loaded in one direction
only so a modified
form of soderberg
diagram is used.A safe Q
D
line line CD may be
drawn parallel to the
line AB
Mathematical Analysis
 The factor of safety can be calculated
by
From similar triangles PQD and AOB
PQ/QD=PQ/OB
PQ/(O1D-O1Q)=OA/(O1B/O1O)
Ty/(Ty-Tm)=Te/(2Ty-Te)
F.S
Cont…
F.S= Ty
Tm-Tv+(2Tv*Ty)/Te
where
Tm=Ks*8Wm*D
3.14*D^3
and
Ks=1+1 and Wm=
Wmax+Wmin 2C
2
Tv=K*8Wv*D
3.14*d^3
K=4C-1 +0.615 and Wv=Wmax-Wmin
4C-4 C 2