Industrial Electrical/Electronic Control Technology Level-III

Design and Develop digital electronics system

Electronics components
 Introduction
Electronic components are designed to function in specific ways. By adding components to each
other, we can modify the way electricity flows through an electronic device and how it operates.

In the designing of any electronic circuit, three most important considerations are:
I. Circuit components like resistors, Capacitors, Transistors and Diodes.
II. Power sources like dc power supplies and signal generators
III. Measurement and analysis instruments like multimeters and Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
(CRO).
 Basic electronic components
They are divided in to two categories:

a) Passive components: they can not generate energy and cause the power to be lost example
are resistors, capacitors and conductors.

b) Active components: they can generate energy and increase the power of the signal
` example are diodes and transistors.

1. Resistors: Resistors can be of two types: fixed value resistors or variable resistors. The
formula for resistance is given by: R = ρ l / A where ρ is resistivity, l is length and
A is area of crossection.
 Color code for resistors
Band color and its Band color and its
value tolerance
Black = 0 Gold = +-5%
Brown = 1 Silver = +-10%
Red = 2 No color means
Orange = 3 20%
Yellow = 4
Green = 5
Blue = 6 The first two bands near an end indicate first 2
Violet = 7 digits, digit corresponding to 3rd band is the power
Grey = 8 of 10 to be multiplied and fourth band indicates
White = 9 tolerance as mentioned in the table. Refer fig 1,
where brown = 1, black = 0, red = 2 and silver = 10
% tolerance. Hence its value is 10 x 10 2 Ω = 1 k
Ω.
 Resistors continues………..
Most commonly used resistors in lab are fixed value resistors.

Variable resistors Besides the fixed value resistors, there also exist variable resistors. The
resistance of variable resistors can vary in steps or continuously. Potentiometer is also an
example of continuously varying resistor

Special purpose resistors Light dependent resistors (LDR) and thermistors are
examples of special purpose resistors. Thermistor is a resistor whose value depends on its
temperature. It is also called a heat sensor. LDR is a resistance whose resistance depends
upon the amount of light falling on it.
 Capacitors
Capacitors are capable of storing charges. They are used for coupling ac signals from one
circuit to another and for frequency selection etc. A capacitor consists of 2 metallic plates
separated by a dielectric. The capacitance is defined as : C = Є o Єr A / d, where A is the area

of plates, d is plates separation, Єo is permittivity of free space and Єr is relative

to each end (ii) Radial where both leads are at the same end.

variable capacitors.

They have a fixed set of plates and a movable set of plates which can be moved through a shaft. This movement
changes the area of overlap of the two sets of plates which changes its capacity.
Capacitor Number Code :
A number code is often used on small capacitors where printing is difficult: the 1st number
is the 1st digit, the 2nd number is the 2nd digit, the 3rd number is the power of ten to be
multiplied, to give the capacitance in pF. Any letters just indicate tolerance and voltage
rating. For example: 102 means 10 X 10 2 pF = 1nF and 472J means 4700pF = 4.7nF (J
means 5% tolerance).
Capacitor Colour Code: Sometimes capacitors just show bands like resistors when
printing is tough on them. The colours should be read like the resistor code, the top three
colour bands giving the value in pF. The 4th band and 5th band are for tolerance and
voltage rating respectively. For example: brown, black, orange means 10000pF = 10nF
= 0.01µF
 Basic components
Inductors: Inductor is a component made by a coil of wire which is wound on a core. It is used to vary the
impedance of a circuit or for frequency tuning. The value of an inductor depends upon the total number of turns (N), area of
crossection of the core (A) and length of the core (l).The formula is L = μ o μr N2 A / l. Its unit is in Henry.

Diode: A diode is a single junction device made of p and n type materials.. Its main function is to rectify an ac signal
although other special purpose diodes like zener are used for voltage regulation in power supplies and led’s are used for
other purposes. A normal diode comes in a black casing whereas a zener diode has a transparent casing.
 Basic components
If the pn junction is made between very heavily doped materials then it forms a Zener diode.
These are used for voltage regulation in power supplies.
Light Emitting Diode (LED)
Led’s are pn junction devices which emit light radiation when biased in the forward direction.
Dual colour led’s are also available where two junctions are encapsulated on the same chip.
 Basic components
Transistors Transistors are semiconductor devices used for applications like amplification of voltages,
current and are also used in oscillator circuits and switches. It’s a two junction and 3 terminal device made of
three layers of n and p type materials. The three regions are emitter, base and collector. They are of 2 types (i)
pnp and (ii) npn.
 IC circuit continues…………
Integrated Circuit (IC) Today all electrical, electronic and computer parts have IC’s in
them. Integrated circuit is a name given to a package which can hold more than 10 and up to
millions of electronic components. They can give various functions like : (i) the function of a
full microprocessor circuit (eg 8085), (ii) a memory chip, (iii) a voltage regulator (LM 7805)
or (iv) Can contain just 10 AND gates (eg LS7400).

For example an IC with name LS 7400 would mean LS series with And gates, LM741C -
mA741C is an operational amplifier (opamp). Datasheets can be referred to, to know the
details of pin configurations and make etc. The pins are usually read starting from left of
notch and going anticlockwise.
IC circuit
INSTRUMENTS:
 Multimeter: A multimeter is an instrument which measures electrical
parameters such as AC or DC voltage, current, and resistance. Rather
than having separate meters, a multimeter combines a voltmeter, an
ammeter, and an ohmmeter. The two main kinds of a multimeter are
analog and digital.
A digital multimeter has an LCD screen that displays the value of the
parameter being measured. while in an analog multimeter display, a
needle moves through a graduated scale. Topmost scale is usually for
resistance and the readings increases from right to left while other
scales readings increase from left to right
INSTRUMENTS:
Cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO): CRO is an instrument which is
used to measure voltages that change with time and to display the
waveforms in real time mode. There is a graphical scale present on the
screen which is used to calculate the voltage or frequency value. A
very important specification of a CRO is its bandwidth which gives the
maximum frequency of a signal which a CRO can measure. A simple
oscilloscope consists of a cathode ray tube, a vertical amplifier, a time
base, a horizontal amplifier and a power supply.
CRO controls from the front panel
 CRO controls from the front panel
Intensity This knob controls the brightness of the trace by adjusting the number of electrons emerging
from the gun
Focus This control is for making the trace on the screen sharper. It is connected to the anode of the
electron gun whose voltage collimates the electron beam.
Vertical Position & Horizontal Position Through these controls the beam can be positioned at variable
vertical or horizontal positions as desired. These knobs apply a dc voltage to the vertical and horizontal
deflection plates.
V / Div. This control is used to control the voltage sensitivity. This is internally connected to an
attenuator of the vertical system. It determines the voltage required by the vertical plates to deflect the beam
vertically by one division.
 CRO controls from the front panel
Time / Div This determines the time taken for the spot to move horizontally across one division of the
screen when the sweep is generated by triggering process. The signal which is fed to the vertical deflection
plates provides the triggering to the waveform. Each position of the time/ div knob is applicable for a
particular frequency. This determines the horizontal sensitivity of the observed signal.
Trigger Source This selects the source of the trigger to be applied to the saw tooth waveform. There are
usually three possible sources (i) Internal: This is mostly used for all applications. The vertical signal
applies the triggering signal. (ii) Line: This is generally used when the voltage to be measured is related
to the line voltage. This selects the 50Hz line voltage. (iii) Ext. In this case an external signal is applied to
trigger the saw tooth waveform./
Slope This determines whether the time base circuit responds to the positive or negative slope of the
triggering waveform.
 CRO controls from the front panel
AC, DC, GND: This selects the coupling mechanism for the input signal to the CRO. In dc mode the vertical amplifier
receives both ac and dc components of the input signal. In ac mode the coupling capacitor blocks all dc components and
displays only pure ac waveform. In gnd configuration, the input signal is grounded and one gets a straight line. To measure
the dc component of any signal (ac or dc), one has to switch from ac to dc mode and observe the vertical shift of the
waveform. The amount of vertical shift in volts gives the corresponding dc component.
1X-Y mode: In this mode of operation. two signals are superimposed at right angles on each other. The saw tooth time
base circuit is disconnected from the horizontal deflection plates and the external signal which s fed to channel two is given
to time base instead. Hence if two sine waves are fed to two channels respectively then the electron beam will undergo
deflection according to right angle superposition of two sine waves. It will trace lissajous figures.
Level This determines the amplitude level on the triggering waveform which can start the sweep