BAS111: General Physics

LECTURE 2
Vector Addition: Graphical Representation
• A vector as we stated before is a quantity that has both magnitude and
direction. Displacement, velocity, acceleration, and force, for example, are
all vectors. In one dimensional, or straight-line, motion, the direction of a
vector can be given simply by a plus or minus sign(see figure above).
• In two dimensions, however, we specify the direction of a vector relative to
some reference frame (i.e., coordinate system), using an arrow having
length proportional to the vector’s magnitude and pointing in the direction
of the vector.
• A person walks 9 m east and 5 m north. The displacement is 10.3 m at an
angle 29.1° north of east.
The head-to-tail method can be used for graphical addition of vectors to
present the person’s resultant displacement. The following steps can lead
you to a final result as presented in the figure.
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Vector Addition: Graphical Representation Cont.

• Step 1. Draw an arrow to represent the first vector (9 m to the east) using a
ruler and protractor.
• Step 2. Now draw an arrow to represent the second vector (5m to the
north). Place the tail of the second vector at the head of the first vector.
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Vector Addition: Graphical Representation Cont.
• Step 3. If there are more than two vectors, continue this process for each
vector to be added. Note that in our example, we have only two vectors,
so we have finished placing arrows tip to tail.
• Step 4. Draw an arrow from the tail of
the first vector to the head of the last
vector. This is the resultant, or the sum,
of the other vectors.
• Step 5. To get the magnitude of the
resultant, measure its length with a ruler.
(Note that in most calculations, we will use the Pythagorean theorem to
determine this length.)
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Vector Addition: Graphical Representation Cont.

Step 6. To get the direction of the resultant, measure the angle it makes with
the reference frame using a protractor. (Note that in most calculations, we will
use trigonometric relationships to determine
this angle).

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Time, Velocity, and Speed
• Time is change, or the interval over which change occurs. It is impossible to
know that time has passed unless something changes.
• Time may be a number on a digital clock, a heartbeat, or the position of the Sun
in the sky.
• Elapsed time Δt is the difference between the ending time and beginning time,

is the time at the beginning of the motion and Δ𝑡 is the change in time or elapsed
time.
the delta symbol, Δ , means the change in the quantity that follows it.
Life is simpler if the beginning time is taken to be zero( = 0) and final velocity t
with Elapsed time Δt = t.

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Velocity
Velocity is a rate of change of displacement.

Average Velocity: is the displacement in a given time

and or
where is the average velocity, is the change in position (or displacement), and
and are the final and beginning positions at times and = 0 respectively. If the
starting time is taken to be zero and to be zero, then the distance covered and
average velocity is simply equals

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Velocity Cont.
The SI unit for velocity is meters per second or m/s, but many other units, such as km/h,
mi/h (also written as mph), and cm/s, are in common use.
Speed
In everyday language, most people use the terms “speed” and “velocity” interchangeably. In
physics, however, they do not have the same meaning
and they are distinct concepts. One major difference is that speed has no direction. Thus
speed is a scalar.
Average speed is the distance traveled in a given time.

We have noted that distance traveled can be greater than displacement. So average
speed can be greater than average velocity, which is displacement divided by time.
For example, if you drive to a school and return home in half an hour, and your car’s
odometer shows the total distance traveled was 6 km, then your
. 8
Acceleration Cont.

Where is average acceleration, v is velocity, and t is time. (The bar over the a
means average acceleration.)
Because acceleration is velocity in m/s divided by time in s, the SI units for
acceleration are m/ , meters per second squared or meters per second per
second, which literally means by how many meters per second the velocity
changes every second.
Acceleration is a vector in the same direction as the change in velocity.
When an object slows down, its acceleration is opposite to the direction of its
motion. This is known as deceleration or retardation.

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Deceleration vs. Negative Acceleration

Deceleration always refers to acceleration in the direction opposite to the

direction of the velocity. Deceleration always reduces speed. Negative
acceleration, however, is acceleration in the negative direction in the
chosen coordinate system. Negative acceleration may or may not be
deceleration, and deceleration may or may not be considered negative
acceleration.
Example
Suppose the train accelerates from rest to 30.0 km/h in the first 20.0 s of
its motion. What is its average acceleration during that time interval?
Solution

This implies that the train is accelerating gradually with time.

Note that , since 10
Motion Equations for Constant Acceleration in One Dimension
• We might know that the greater the acceleration of, say, a car moving away
from a stop sign, the greater the displacement in a given time.
• In this section, we develop some convenient equations for kinematic
relationships, starting from the definitions of displacement, velocity, and
acceleration already covered.
• When initial time is taken to be zero, we use the subscript to denote initial
values of position and velocity. That is, is the initial position and is the initial
velocity.
• Let be the final time, is the final position, and is the final velocity.
.
It also simplifies the expression for displacement, which is now
The change in velocity, which is now .
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Motion Equations for Constant Acceleration in One Dimension Cont.

To summarize, using the simplified notation, with the initial time taken to be zero,

Δ𝑡 = 𝑡 , and
We can now make important assumption that acceleration is constant. This
assumption allows us to avoid using calculus to find instantaneous acceleration.
Since acceleration is constant, the average and instantaneous accelerations are
equal. That is, ,
Average velocity with constant Acceleration
To get our first two new equations, we start with the definition of average
velocity:
Substituting the simplified notation for and yields.

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Average velocity with constant Acceleration Cont.
For a constant acceleration, the average velocity is

Example
If you steadily increase your velocity (that is, with constant acceleration)
from 30 to 60 km/h, then your average velocity during this steady increase
is 45 km/h. That is,

This average velocity can be expressed in the unit of m/s as

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Motion with constant Acceleration
We can derive another useful equation by manipulating the definition of
acceleration:
Substituting the simplified notation for and gives

This equation is called the first equation of motion

Second Equation of motion
Now we substitute this expression for into the equation for displacement,
and

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Third Equation of Motion
A third useful equation of motion is obtained by substituting and
into , which gives

This is the third equation of motion.

Solved Examples
1. A turtle and a rabbit engage in a footrace over a distance of 4.00 km. The rabbit runs 0.500
km and then stops for a 90.0-min nap. Upon awakening, he remembers the race and runs
twice as fast. Finishing the course in a total time of 1.75 h, the rabbit wins the race. (a)
Calculate the average speed of the rabbit. (b) What was his average speed before he stopped
for a nap? 15
solved Examples Cont.

(a) Find the rabbit’s overall average speed.

(b) Find the rabbit’s average speed before his nap.

Sum the running times, and set the sum equal to

Substitute and :
But

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solved Examples Cont.

so, =

2. A race car starting from rest accelerates at a constant rate of

5.00 . What is the velocity of the car after it has traveled in 30.5m.
Solution

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solved Examples Cont.

3. A car traveling at a constant speed of point of 24m from the origin and
passes a trooper hidden behind a billboard. Imediately after the speeding car
passes the billboard, the trooper sets off in chase with a constant
acceleration of . (a) How long does it take the trooper to overtake the
speeding car? (b) How fast is the trooper going at that time?
Solution
(a) How long does it take the trooper to overtake the car?
Write the equation for the car’s displacement:

For the car: Take , 18

solved Examples Cont.
:

For the trooper:

Take

But

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solved Examples Cont.

b. Find the trooper’s speed at this time

Substitute the time into the trooper’s velocity equation:
From
Falling Objects
Falling objects form an interesting class of motion problems. For example,
we can estimate the depth of a well by dropping a piece of stone into it and
listening for the stone to hit the bottom.

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Falling Objects Cont.

Gravity
• The most remarkable fact about falling objects is that, if air resistance and
friction are negligible, then in a given location all objects fall toward the center
of Earth with the same constant acceleration, independent of their mass.

• In the real world, air resistance can cause a lighter object to fall slower than a
heavier object of the same size. Air resistance opposes the motion of an
object through the air. For the ideal situations, an object falling without air
resistance or friction is defined to be in free-fall. 21
Gravity Cont.

• The force of gravity causes objects to fall toward the center of Earth. The
acceleration of free-falling objects is therefore called the acceleration due
to gravity. The acceleration due to gravity is constant, which means we can
apply the kinematics equations to any falling object where air resistance
and friction are negligible.
• The acceleration due to gravity is so important that its magnitude is given
by symbol, . It is constant at any given location on Earth and has the
average value .
• If we define the upward direction as positive , then

and if we define the downward direction as negative, then

+.
Kinematic Equations for Objects in Free-Fall has Acceleration 22
One-Dimensional Motion Involving Gravity

,
where
Maximum Height attained by the Object.
For object projected vertically upwards, the maximum height is attained by the
object when the final velocity at the maximum height is zero.
Form , let then

At maximum height and

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Time to attain Maximum Height
Let be the time required to attain the maximum height then from

Total time of flight

The time of flight is when we set

so that

; since

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Example

A stone is thrown from the top of a building with an initial velocity of straight
upward, at an initial height of above the ground. The stone just misses the edge
of the roof on its way down. Determine (a) the time needed for the stone to
reach its maximum height, (b) the maximum height, (c) the time needed for the
stone to return to the height from which it was thrown and the velocity of the
stone at that instant; (d) the time needed for the stone to reach the ground, and
(e) the velocity and position of the stone at .
Solution
(a) To find the time when the stone reaches its maximum height.

(b) Maximum height attained

Now substitute the time s into Equation 25
Example Cont.
Total time of flight

Substitute the time into first equation to get the velocity

The minus sign means the stone has reversed its direction.
(d) time required for the stone to reach the ground.
Set then

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Example Cont.
Using quadratic equation:

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Example Cont.
(e) the velocity and position of the stone at .
(i) Velocity of stone

(ii) Position of the stone

Worked Example 2
A man wanted to measure the depth of a well and decided to drop a piece
of stone in the well and he heard the sound of the tone 1 second later when
it hits the bottom of the well. Estimate the depth of the well.
Solution
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚
ℎ=4.9𝑚 28
MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS
• An introduction to vectors
Physical quantities can be classified as scalars or vectors. A scalar
quantity is simple number (with unit) such as mass, distance, speed,…
but a vector quantity is defined with both a magnitude (which is a
number with unit) and a direction; such as force, displacement,
velocity etc.

For example, to describe where the school is

located versus your home, it is not sufficient to
give the distance between them.
We have to give the distance and
the direction
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The components of a vector
Definition of vector: A vector is defined with a magnitude and a
direction. The magnitude is given by the length of the vector and the
direction by a positive angle.

A vector is resolved in (𝑥 𝑦 plane into two components :is the

component on the and is the component on the , where 30
The components of a vector Cont.
If the vector is defined in the (𝑥 𝑦 plane by its components and then the
magnitude and the direction of the vector are:

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Example
A person walks 1 𝑘m due east. If the person then walks a second kilometer,
what is the final distance from the starting point if the second kilometer is
walked : (a) due east; (b) due west; (c) due south?
We will call the first displacement and the second
Solution
We construct the sum for the three cases

(a) Since and are in the same direction,

The vector is directed due east.

(b) Here, the vectors are opposite,
so .

(c) From the Pythagorean theorem:

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 Solution Cont.

So,
points toward the southeast
Example
Find the components of the vectors and as in the figures, if and .

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Solution Cont.

Solution
and are positive:
2 cos 30° = 2(0.866) = 1.73
sin30° = 2 (0.500) = 1.00
From Figure b, is positive and is negative:
cos 45° = sin 45° = 0.707,
=3 cos 45° = 3 (0.707) = 2.12
= −3 sin 45° = −3 (0.707) = −2.12

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Adding and Subtracting vectors
Adding vectors using components:
1. Find the components of each vector to be added
2. Add the and components separately
3. Find the resultant vector.

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Subtracting vectors
The negative of a vector is a vector of the same magnitude pointing in the
opposite direction. Here

Exercise
, (a) Find the components of
(b) Find the magnitude of and its angle with respect to the
Positive x-axis
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