Suggested Readings

• T.S.Rappaport, Wireless communications

• Vijay garg ,GSM &CDMA
• W.Y.C lee ,Mobile Cellular Telecommunications
• Kamilo Feher,Wireless digital
communications:modulations & spread
Spectrum Applications
 What is wireless Communications ?
• Transmitting /Receiving voice & data using
electromagnetic waves in open space
- The information from sender to reciver is carrier
over a well-defined frequency band(channel)
- Each channel has a fixed frequency BW & Capacity
- Different channels can be used to transmit
information in parallel & independent
 Example
• Assume a spectrum of 120KHz is allocated
over a base frequency for communication
between station A & B
• Each channel occupies 40KHz

Channel 1- 40KHz

Station A Channel 2 -40KHz Station B

Channel 3 -40KHz
Types of Wireless communication
• Mobile
- Cellular Phones(GSM/cdma2000.1x)
• Portable
- IEEE 802.11b(WiFi)
- IEEE 802.15.3(UWB)
• Fixed
- IEEE 802.16(Wireless MAN)
 Typical Frequencies

FM Radio 88 MHz
TV Broadcast 200 MHz
GSM Phones 900 MHz
GPS 1.2 GHz
PCS phone 1.8 GHz
bluetooth 2.4 GHz
WiFi 2.4 GHz
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
 Timeline of wireless communication
• James Clerk Maxwell
• maxwell equations- his work establish the
theoretical foundation for the development of
wireless communication
• After the maxwell Hz was the guy who validate
the theory
• J.C.Bose actually demonstrate

• Morconi – 1st telegraphic instrument

 Why Wireless Communication? (1)
• Freedom from wires
- No cost of installing wires or rewiring
- No bunches of wires runing here & there
-“auto magical ”instantaneous communication
without physical connection setup
e.g Bluetooth, WiFi
Why Wireless Communication? (2)
• Global Coverage:
• - communication can reach where wiring is
infeasible or costly
e.g. rural areas,old buildings battlefield,vehicles,
• Stay connected
- Roaming allows flexibility to stay connected
anywhere & anytime
 Why Wireless Communication? (3)
• Flexibility
- services reach you whenever you go (mobility)
e.g. you don’t have to go to your lab to check your mail
- Connect to multiple devices simultaneously(no physical
connection required)
Why Wireless Communication? (4)
• Increasing dependence on telecommunication
services for business & personal reasons
• Consumers & businesses are willing to pay for
it
• Basic Mantra: Stay connected – anywhere
anytime
 Challenges(1)
• Efficient Hardware
- Low power Transmitter, Receiver
- Low power Signal processing Tools
• Efficient use of finite radio spectrum
- Cellular frequency reuse, MAC
• Integrated services
- Voice,data,multimedia over a single network
 Challenges(2)
• Network support for user mobility
- locations identifications , handovers
• Maintaining QOS over unreliable links
• Connectivity & coverage (internetworking)
• Cost efficient
 Challenges(3)
• Fading
• Multipath
• Higher probability of data corruption
- hence need for stronger channel codes
• Need for stronger Security mechanism
- privacy ,authentication
 Wireless VS Mobile
• NOTE: Wireless does not necessarily
mean mobile

• Wireless system may be

- Fixed(e.g.metropolitan area network MAN)
- Portable(e.g.wireless interaction between TV&VCR)
- Mobile(e.g. Mobile Phone)
 Types of wireless communications(1)
• Radio Transmission
- Easily generated ,omni-directionally travel long
distances, easily penetrate buildings
problems:
- frequency dependent
- low BW for data communications
- tightly licensed by the government
 Types of wireless communications(2)
• Microwave communication
- widely used for long distance communication
- gives high S/N ratio, relatively inexpensive
• Problems:
- don’t pass through building well
- Weather & frequency dependent
 Types of wireless communications(3)
• Infrared & Millimeter Waves
- widely used for short-range communication
- Unable to pass through solid objects
- Used for indoor wireless LANs,not for outdoor
Lightwave Transmission
- Unguided optical signal ,such as laser
- Connected 2 LANs in 2 buildings via laser mounted on
the their roof
Problem
- Unable to penetrate rain or thick fog
Wireless System :Range Comparison
1M 10M 100M 1km 100km 1000km

MW
IR Bletooth WLANs mobile FMradio
radio Satellite
links
A Simplified Wireless Communication System
Representation

Voice Power
coding modulation
data amplifier

carrier

Voice Demodulati
Decoding LNA
data on

carrier
Wireless Communication System Definitions ,
Terminology(1)
• Mobile: A radio terminal attached to a high
speed mobile platform(e.g.a cell phone in a fast
moving vehicle)
• Portable: A radio terminal that can be hand held
& used by someone at walking speed (e.g.a cordless
telephone)
• Subscriber: A mobile or portable user
• Transceiver: A device capable of simultaneously
transmitting & receiving radio signals
 Terminology (2)
• BS: A fixed station in a mobile radio system used for
radio communication with mobile stations .BS are
located at the center or on the edge of a coverage
region & consist of radio channels & transmitter &
receiver antennas mounted on a tower
• MS: MS may be hand-held personal units (portable)
• Roamer: A MS which operates in a service
(Market)other than from which service has been
subscribed
 Terminology (3)
• Handoff: The process of transferring a MS from
one channel or BS to another
• MSC(MTSO): Switching center which co-
ordinates the routing of calls in a large service area.In
a cellular radio system the MSC connects the cellular
BS & the mobile to the PSTN
• Page: A brief message which is broadcast over the
entire service area ,usually in a simulcast fashion by
many BS at the same time
 Terminology (4)
• Reverse channel: Radio channel used for
transmission of information from the mobile to BS
• Forward channel: Radio channel used for
transmission of information from the BS to the
mobile
• Control channel: Radio channel used for
transmission of call setup ,call request ,call initiation
& other control purpose
• Cell: The area of coverage is divided into cells .Each
cell has a BS located at its center or edge
 Terminology (5)
• Simplex System
• Half Duplex System
• Full Duplex System
 Current Wireless Systems
• Cellular Systems
• Wireless LANs
• Satellite Systems
• Paging System
• PANs(Bluetooth)
• Cordless System
• 1.Cellular System
• Reuse channel to maximize capacity
• Geographic region divided into cells
• Frequencies/time slots/codes reused at spatially
separated locatins
• Base station/MTSO Co-ordinates handoff & control
functions
 1.Cellular System

• Communication between BS & MS is defined

by common air interfaces (CAI) that specifies 4
channel
• FVC – BS to MS
• RVC –MS to BS
• FCC
• RCC
• FCC & RCC responsible for initiating mobile call
 Cellular System
• Forward Voice Channel (FVC): used for
voice transmission from BS to MS
• Reverse Voice Channel (RVC): Used for
Voice transmission from MS to BS
• Forward Control channel (FCC): used for
initiating a call from BS to MS
• Reversed Control Channel (RCC): used for
initiating a call from MS to BS
 Timing diagram illustrating how a call to a
mobile user initiated by a landline subscriber is
established.

30
Timing diagram illustrating how a call initiated by
a mobile is established

32
 2.Paging System
• Broad coverage for short messaging
• Message broadcast from all base stations
• Simple terminals
• - Low complexity ,very low-power (Rx)devices
• Optimized for 1-way transmission
• Answer –back hard
• Overtaken by cellular
Wide-Area Paging System
 3.Cordless Telephone System
• A cordless telephone or portable telephone is
a telephone with a wireless handset that
communicates via radio waves with a
base station connected to a fixed
telephone line, usually within a limited range
of its base station
• The base station is on the subscriber premises,
and attaches to the telephone network the
same way a corded telephone does.
3.Cordless Telephone System
Modern Wireless Communication System
 Cellular Networks: Evolution (1)
• First Generation(1G)
- Launch in the mid-1980s
- Analog System
- Analog modulation ,mostly FM
- Voice Traffic only
- FDMA/FDD multiple access
Example: AMPS(Advanced Mobile Phone
Services)
 First Generations (1G) Shortcomings

• Cell phones
– Limited battery life (typically 8 hours)
– Limited range – could have more powerful cell
phone mounted in cars
• Security
– None – easy to listen in
- Very limited number of voice channels
 Cellular Networks: Evolution (2)
• Second Generation(2G)
- Voice (data) channels are digital-1990
- Modulation scheme used-GMSK
- GSM uses frequency duplex communication & each call is
allotted a duplex channel(TDMA/FDD)
- Duplex channels are separated by a 45MHz
- Every channel is of 200KHz BW so GSM uses FDM to
separate the channel
- Downlink frequency (BS to MS)- 935 t0 960 MHz
- Uplink frequency (MS to BS)- 890 t0 915 MHz
 Cellular Networks: Evolution (3)
• Example of Second Generation(2G)
- Global System for Mobile Communication(GSM)
-- TDMA/FDMA
-- 900MHz & 1800 MHz band
- Personal Digital Communication(PDC)
-- Popular in Japan
- IS-95
-- CDMA
-- US/South Korea
 Cellular Networks: Evolution (4)
Shortcomings of 2G
- Single circuit switch voice channel
- Less data transmission
- Data rate 10kbps
- Too slow for Internet & E-mail
- Generally used for SMS
 Cellular Networks: Evolution (5)
• 2.5G
- The effort to remove the impediments of 2G system resulted
in 2.5G
- Digital System
- Voice + Low data rate
- Internet access
- Web Browsing
- Higher Data Traffic
- E-Mail Traffic
 Cellular Networks: Evolution (6)

2.5G uses : upgrades

1 . High speed ckt sw data(HSCSD)
2. General packet Radio service(GPRS)
3. Enhanced data rates for GSM evolution(EDGE
 Cellular Networks: Evolution (7)

• HSCSD
- High-speed circuit-switched data (HSCSD), is an
enhancement to Circuit Switched Data (CSD)
- One innovation in HSCSD is to allow different error
correction methods to be used for data transfer
- Data rate archives 14.4 kbps
- It can provides up to 57.6 Kbps

46
 Cellular Networks: Evolution (8)
• GPRS
- GPRS was designed to make mobile data faster, cheaper,
and user-friendlier than ever before.
- By introducing Internet Protocol (IP) and packet switching
to mobile networks, it gives mobile users faster data rate
- For subscribers, GPRS enables voice and data calls
simultaneously.
- Setting up a Connection is almost instantaneous, and
users can be always connected to the mobile Internet,
enjoying Web surfing, high-speed delivery of e-mails with
large file attachments, and access to corporate LANs.
47
 Cellular Networks: Evolution (9)

• Packet based network use for

- Non-real time internet usage
- retrieval of email, fax, & web browser
- user can download data
- It is always –on to access nw
- Data rate -172.2kbps

48
 Cellular Networks: Evolution (9)

• GPRS supports
-Short message services( SMS)
- Wireless application protocol(WAP)
- multimedia messaging services(MMS)

49
 Cellular Networks: Evolution (10)

• Application of GPRS
- Chat
- Multimedia services
- Virtual private nw
- Personal information management
- Vehicle positioning

50
 Cellular Networks: Evolution (11)

• EDGE
- Increase data rates up to 384 kbps
- Generally classified as 2.75G
- Introduces a new modulation technique (8PSK) and channel
coding.
- In addition to Gaussian minimum- shift keying (GMSK),EDGE
uses higher-order PSK/8 phase shift keying (8PSK).
-EDGE produces a 3-bit word for every change in carrier phase.
Cellular Networks: Evolution (12)

52
 Cellular Networks: Evolution (12)

• 3G
- mult-megabit bits internet access
- communication using VOIP
- voice activated call
- ‘always on’ access
• It Receives
- live music
- interactive web
- simultaneous voice & data access
- multiple parties on single handset irrespective on
location 53
 Cellular Networks: Evolution (12)
• 3G CDMA 2000
- It provides a seamless & evolutionary high data rate up to
2Mbps
- Total BW is 12Mhz & channel BW is 1.25Mhz
- Previous cdma20001x provides data rate of up to 307kbps for
user in packet mode
- Total throughput rate of up to 144kbps per user depending
upon the no.of users & the velocity of user
-cdma20001xEV ( evolutionary) originally developed by to
provides –data rate greater than 2.4Mbps
- web browsing
- email access
54
 Cellular System : Basic concepts (1)

• High capacity is achieved by limiting the coverage of

each BS to small geographic region called a cell
• Same frequency /time slots/codes are reused by
spatially separated BS
• A switching technique called handoff enables a call to
proceed uninterrupted when one user moves from
one cell to another
• Resolves problem of limited radio spectrum
 Cellular System : Basic concepts (2)

• Neighboring BS are assigned different group of

channel so as to minimize the interference
• By systematically spacing BS & the channel groups
may be reused as many number of times as
necessary
• As demand increases ,the number of BS may be
increased thereby providing additional capacity
 Frequency Reuse: The Need (1)

• Fixed telephone network runs wires to every household

• Suppose we give every household their own allocation of
radio spectrum for analog speech of 4 kHz
• 12.5 million household (say Pune) X 4 kHz=50GHz !
• Clearly impractical !!
- no other services possible using radio transmission
- most of the spectrum unused most of the time
 Frequency Reuse: The Need (2)

• Cellular radio system rely on intelligent allocation &

reuse of channels throughout the coverage area
• Each BS is allocated a group of radio channels to be
used within the small geographic area of its cell
• Neighboring BS are given different channel allocation
from each other
 Frequency Reuse: The Need (3)
• By design of antennas, the coverage area is
limited within the cell & the same group of
frequencies is reused to cover another cell
separated by a large enough distance to keep
co-channel interference within limits
• The design procedure of allocating channel
groups for all of the cellular BS within a system
is called frequency Reused or Frequency
Planning
•

• Signal cell counter indicating actual cell coverage

• This depends upon terrain ,presence of obstacle &
signal attenuation in the atmosphere
The Cell Shape (3)

MS

BS
MS
The Cell Shape (3)

Other Cell Models

The Cell Shape (4)

Triangular Cell

Other Cell Models

The Cell Shape (3)
 The Cell Shape (4)
• Hexagonal Cells are Conceptual
• For most theoretical treatment, hexagonal
model of cells is universally adopted because:
- hexagons are a geometric shape that
approximates a circle ( for omni-directional
antenna)
- Using a hexagon geometric ,fewest number
of cells cover the entire geographical region
 The geometry of Hexagon(2)

• Axes u,v intersect at 60

• Unit scale is distance between cell centers
• If cell radius to point of hexagon is R, then
• 2Rcos 30= 1
• To find the distance of a point P(u,v) from the origin
use x-y to u-v co-ordinates transformation:

• x
• Y=
 The Geometry of hexagon (3)
• Using this equation, to locate co-channel cells, we
start from a reference cell & move I hexagons along
the u axis then j hexagon along the v-axis
• Hence the distance between co-channel cell in
adjacent clusters is given by:

• The number of cells in a cluster N,is given by

• where i & j are integers

• Hence the possible values of N are 1,3,4,7,12
The Geometry of hexagon (3)
Reuse ratio

71
 Cell Capacity & Reuse (1)
• Consider a cellular system which has a total of S duplex
channels.
• Each cell is allocated a group of k channels, .
• The S channels are divided among N cells.
• The total number of available radio channels
S=KN
The N cells which use the complete set of channels is called cluster.
• The cluster can be repeated M times within the system. The
total number of channels, C, is used as a measure of capacity
• C=MKN=MS
• The capacity is directly proportional to the number of replication
M.
• The cluster size, N, is typically equal to 4, 7, or 12
72
 Cell Capacity & Reuse (2)

• If the cluster size N is reduced keeping the cell

size fixed ,more cluster are required to cover the
entire area of interest, i.e
M↑=C↑
• Smaller N(higher capacity)implies large cochannel
interference ,which may result in a lower QOS
 Channel Assignment Strategies (1)

• A scheme for increasing capacity & minimizing

interference is required
• Channel assignment strategies can be
classified as either fixed or dynamic
• The choice of the channel assignment strategy
impacts the performance of the system
particularly how a call is managed when a
mobile user is handed off from one cell to
another
 Channel Assignment Strategies (2)
• Why we need channel assignment ?
- to utilize the spectrum efficiently
- reuse the frequency
- increase the capacity
- minimize interference
• There are Two types of channel assignment strategies
- fixed or dynamic
- borrowing strategies

75
 Fixed channel assignment
• Each cell is allocated a predetermined set of voice
channel
• Any call attempt within the cell can only be served by
the unused channel in that particular cell
• If all the channel in that cell are occupied, the call is
blocked .The user does not get service
• In a variation of the fixed channel assignment a cell can
borrow channel from its neighboring cell if its own
channels are full

76
 Dynamic channel assignment (1)

• Voice channels are not allocated to different cell

permanently
• Each time a call request is made, the BS request a
channel from MSC
• MSC allocates a channel to the requested cell using an
algorithm that takes in to account
- the like- hood of future blocking
- the frequency of use of the candidate channel
- the reuse distance of the channel
- other cost function
77
 Dynamic channel assignment (2)
• To ensure the minimum QoS ,the MSC only
allocates a given frequency if that frequency is
not currently in use in the cell or any other cell
which falls within the limiting reuse distance
• DCA reduces the likelihood of blocking thus
increasing the capacity of the system
• DCA strategies require the MSC to collect real
time data on channel occupancy & traffic
distribution on the a continuous basis
 Handoff

• When a mobile moves into a different cell while a

conversation is in progress, the MSC automatically
transfers the call to a new channel belonging to the
new base station.
• The handoff operation involves identifying a new BS
& the allocation of voice & control signal associated
with the new BS
• Handoffs must be performed successfully as
infrequently as possible & must be imperceptible to
the user

79
 Handoff Region (1)

Signal strength due to Bsi

Signal strength due to BSj

Pi(x) Pj(x)
BSj
BSi
Handoff Region (2)
Handoff Region (2)

82
 Handoff Region (3)
• Handoff is made when the received signal at the BS
falls below a pre-specified threshold
• In deciding when to handoff ,it is important to ensure
that the drop in the signal level is not due to
momentary fading
• In order to ensure this, the BS monitors the signal for
a certain period of time before initiating handoff
 Practical Handoff Consideration (1)

• Different type of users

– High speed users need frequent handoff during a call.
– Low speed users may never need a handoff during a call.
• Microcells to provide capacity, the MSC can become burdened if
high speed users are constantly being passed between very small
cells.
• Minimize handoff intervention
– handle the simultaneous traffic of high speed and low speed
users.
• Large and small cells can be located at a single location (umbrella
cell)
– different antenna height
– different power level
84
Practical Handoff Consideration

85
 Umbrella Cell Approach
• Low speed users can be handled by microcells or Pico
cells.
• High speed users are handled by a larger cell
microcell which is co-located with smaller cells.
• Speed of MS can be estimated by MSC by observing
the rate of change of signal strength.

86
 Handoff Strategies

• In the 1G analog cellular systems ,the signal strength

measurement are made by the BS & are supervised
by the MSC
• In the 2nd generation systems, that use TDMA
technology ,Mobile Assisted Handoffs(MAHO)are
used
• In MAHO ,every MS measures the received power
from the surrounding BS & continually reports these
values to the corresponding BS
• Handoff is initiated if the signal strength of a
neighboring BS exceed that of the current BS
 interference
• Interference is a major limiting factor in the performance
of cellular radio .it limits capacity & increases the number
of dropped calls
• Sources of interference
– another mobile in the same cell
– a call in progress in the neighboring cell
– other base stations operating in the same frequency
• Interference is more severe in the urban areas due to greater
RF noise floor & more number of MS & BS
 The effect of interference

• Interference on voice channel causes

- Crosstalk
- noise in the background
• Interference on control channel causes
Error in digital signaling which causes
- missed calls
- block calls
- dropped calls
 More on Interference

• There are Two major types of cellular interference

– co-channel interference (CCI)
– adjacent channel interference (ACI)

• CCI is caused due to the cells that reuse the same

frequency set . These cells using the same frequency
set are called cochannel cell
• ACI is caused due to the signal that are adjacent in
frequency
 CCI (2)

• Unlike thermal noise, CCI cannot be overcome by

increasing the carrier power of the transmitter
• This is because ,any increases in the transmitter
power increases the interference to other
cochannel cells(creating our own noise)
• For similar sized cells, the CCI is independent of the
transmitted power & depends on the cell radius R,&
the distance to the nearest cochannel cell D
 CCI (3)
• The cochannel reuse ratio ,Q=D/R
• It determines the spatial separation relative to
the coverage distance of the cell
• For a hexagonal cell pattern
Q=D/R=
• Thus a smaller value of Q provides a larger
capacity, but higher CCI
• Hence there is a trade off between Capacity
&interference
Calculation of Signal to Interference Ratio:S/I
(1)
• The Signal- to –interference ratio (S/I)for a mobile is
S S
 i0
I
I
i 1
i

• Where S is the desired signal power & Ii is the

interference caused by the ith cochannel cell
• The average received power at a distance d is
n
d 
Pr  P0  
 d0 
 Calculation of Signal to Interference
Ratio:S/I (2)
• If Di is the distance of the ith interfere ,the received
power is proportional
• The path loss exponent n,ranges between 2 & 4
• Thus the S/I for a mobile can be written as
S Rn
 i0
I
 i
D
i 1
n

For only the 1st layer of equidistance interferers

S ( D / R )n
 
 3N 
n

I i0 i0
 Calculation of S/I (3)
• For a hexagonal
Cluster of cells

Hence S/I is independent of the

Cell Radius
 Example

• Design parameter
• desied S/I=15db
• Path loss exponent ,n=3
• What is the required reuse ratio
First try N=7
D/R=4.58
S/I =(1/6)(4.58)^3=16.04=12.05db
• Next try N=7
 Worst case calculation of S/I

• For hexagonal geometry with 7-cell cluster, with the

mobile unit being at the cell boundary, the signal-to-
interference ratio for the worst case can be
approximated as

S R 4

I 2( D  R )  4  ( D  R / 2 )  4  ( D  R / 2 )  4  ( D  R )  4  D  4
 Worst case calculation of S/I (1)
• The MS is at the cell
• boundary
• The approximate S/I
• Is given by
S R 4

I 2( D  R )  4  ( D  R / 2 )  4  ( D  R / 2 )  4  ( D  R )  4  D  4
 Adjacent channel interference

• interference from adjacent in frequency to the

desired signal.
• Imperfect receiver filters allow nearby
frequencies to leak into the passband
• Performance degrade seriously due to near-far
effect.
 ACI (2)
• Near Far Effect: when an interfere close to the BS
radiates in the adjacent channel ,while the subscriber
is far away from the BS

interfere
Subscriber
 ACI (3)
• ACI can be reduced by
- careful filtering
- careful channel assignment
• The frequency separation between each channel in a
cell should be made as large as possible
• If the subscriber is at a distance d1 & the interfere is
at d2 then signal-to –interfere ratio (prior to filtering)
is
 ACI (4)

• Example: Suppose the subsriber is d1=1000m from

the BS & an adjacent channel interfere is at d2=
100m from the BS
• Path loss exponent is n=3
• Prior to filtering the S/I ratio will be
Improving Capacity in Cellular Systems
• Methods for improving capacity in cellular
systems
– Cell Splitting: subdividing a congested cell into
smaller cells.
– Sectoring: directional antennas to control the
interference and frequency reuse.
– Microcell zoning : Distributing the coverage of
a cell and extends the cell boundary to hard-to-
reach place.
 Cell splitting (1)
• Cell Splitting is the process of subdividing a congested cell
it to smaller cells with
- their own BS
- a corresponding reduction in the antenna height
- a corresponding reduction in the transmitter power
• Splitting the cells reduces the cell size & thus more
number of cells have to be used
• More number of cells more number of cluster
more channels higher capacity
• Cell splitting allows a system to grow by replacing large
cells by small cells, without upsetting the channel
allocation
Small cell(high density)

Smaller cell(higher density)

 Cell Splitting
• Split congested cell into smaller cells.
– Preserve frequency reuse plan.
– Reduce transmission power.
• Transmission power reduction from Pt1 to Pt 2
• Examining the receiving power at the new and old cell boundary
Pr [at old cell boundary ]  Pt1R  n
Pr [at new cell boundary]  Pt 2 ( R / 2)  n

• If we take n = 4 and set the received power equal to each other

Pt1
Pt 2 
16
• The transmit power must be reduced by 12 dB in order to fill in the
original coverage area.
 Cell splitting (3)

• Cells are split to add channels with no new

spectrum usage
• Depending on traffic pattern the smaller cells
may be activated / deactivated in order to
efficiently use cell resources
 Cell Sectoring (1)
• As opposed to cell splitting ,where D/R is kept
constant while decreasing Sectoring keeps R
untouched & reduced the D/R
• Capacity improvement is achieved by reducing the
number of cells per cluster thus increasing frequency
reuse
• In order to do this it is necessary to reduced the
relative interference without decreasing the
transmitted power
 Cell Sectoring (2)

• The CCI may be decreases by replacing the single

omnidirectional antenna by several directional
antennas each radiating within a specified sector
• A directional antenna transmits to & receives from
only a fraction of the total number of cochannel cells.
Thus CCI is reduced
• A cell is normally partitioned into three 120
sector ,four 90 sector or six 60 sector
 Cell Sectoring (4)

• Placing directional transmitter at corners where

three adjacent cells meet
 Cell Sectoring (5)

• Problems with sectoring

- increase number of antennas at each BS
- increase number of handoffs(sector to sector)
• Good news: many modern BS supports sectoring &
related handoff without the help of MSC
 Micro Zone Concept (1)

• The problem of sectoring can be addressed by the

Micro Zone concept
• A cell is divided in to microcell or zones
• Each microcell(zone) is connected to the same BS
(fiber/microwave link)
• Each zone uses a directional antenna
• As a mobile travels from one zone to another ,it
retains the same channel ,i.e no handoff
Micro Zone Concept (2)

Zone
selector