CHAPTER 2

• Network Models: Client/ server network and

Peer-to-peer network,
• OSI, TCP/IP, layers and functionalities.

1
Client/Server Networks
• Server-based network
• Clients and servers
• Data flows efficiently
• Servers respond to
requests from clients
• Servers perform specific
tasks
• Scalable network
• Centralized

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Classifications of
Client/Server Networks
• LAN
• Local area network
• Computers linked
together over a small
geographic region

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Classifications of
Client/Server Networks
• WAN
• Wide area network
• Computers linked
over large
geographic locations
• MAN
• Metropolitan area
network
• Computers linked
together within a
city or county

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Classifications of
Client/Server Networks
• PAN
• Personal area network
• Wireless devices connected in close proximity to each other
• Intranet
• Private corporate network
• Protected by a firewall

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Constructing
Client/Server Networks
• Servers
• Network topologies
• Transmission media
• Network operating
system (NOS)
• Network adapters
• Network navigation
devices

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Servers
• Number and type of servers
depend on network size and
workload
• Dedicated server
• Performs one specific function
• Authentication server
• Keeps track of network logins
and services available
• File server
• Stores and manages files

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Dedicated Servers
• Print server
• Manages client-requested printing jobs
• Creates print queue (prioritizes print jobs)
• Applications server
• Acts as a storage area for application software
• Database server
• Provides clients with access to database information
• E-mail server
• Processes and delivers in-coming and outgoing
e-mail

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Dedicated Servers
• Communications server
• Handles communications between networks including the Internet
• Often the only device on the network directly connected to the Internet
• Web server
• Hosts a Web site available through
the Internet

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P2P Networking/Computing
• P2P computing is the sharing of computer resources
and services by direct exchange between systems.
• These resources and services include the exchange
of information, processing cycles, cache storage, and
disk storage for files.
• P2P computing takes advantage of existing
computing power, computer storage and
networking connectivity, allowing users to leverage
their collective power to the “benefit” of all.

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P2P Architecture
• All nodes are both
clients and servers
• Provide and consume data
• Any node can initiate a
connection
• No centralized data
source
• “The ultimate form of
democracy on the Internet”
• “The ultimate threat to copy-
right protection on the
Internet

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What is P2P?
• A distributed system
architecture
• No centralized control
• Typically many nodes, but
unreliable and heterogeneous
• Nodes are symmetric in Internet
Internet
function
• Take advantage of distributed,
shared resources (bandwidth,
CPU, storage) on peer-nodes
• Fault-tolerant, self-organizing
• Operate in dynamic
environment, frequent join and
leave is the norm

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P2P Network Characteristics
• Clients are also servers and routers
• Nodes contribute content, storage, memory, CPU
• Nodes are autonomous (no administrative
• authority)
• Network is dynamic: nodes enter and leave the network
“frequently”
• Nodes collaborate directly with each other (not through well-
known servers)
• Nodes have widely varying capabilities

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P2P vs. Client/Server
• Pure P2P:
• No central server
• For certain requests any peer can function as a client,
as a router, or as a server
• The information is not located in a central location but
is distributed among all peers
• A peer may need to communicate with multiple peers
to locate a piece of information

As more peers are added, both demand

and capacity of the network increases !
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P2P Benefits
• Efficient use of resources
• Unused bandwidth, storage, processing power at the edge of the network
• Scalability
• Consumers of resources also donate resources
• Aggregate resources grow naturally with utilization
• Reliability
• Replicas
• Geographic distribution
• No single point of failure
• Ease of administration
• Nodes self organize
• No need to deploy servers to satisfy demand (c.f. scalability)
• Built-in fault tolerance, replication, and load balancing
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Difference between Client-Server and
Peer-to-Peer Network:
S.NO CLIENT-SERVER NETWORK PEER-TO-PEER NETWORK
In Client-Server Network, Clients and server
In Peer-to-Peer Network, Clients and server are not
1. are differentiated, Specific server and clients
differentiated.
are present.
Client-Server Network focuses on
2. While Peer-to-Peer Network focuses on connectivity.
information sharing.
In Client-Server Network, Centralized server While in Peer-to-Peer Network, Each peer has its own
3.
is used to store the data. data.
In Client-Server Network, Server respond the While in Peer-to-Peer Network, Each and every node
4.
services which is request by Client. can do both request and respond for the services.
Client-Server Network are costlier than Peer- While Peer-to-Peer Network are less costlier than
5.
to-Peer Network. Client-Server Network.
Client-Server Network are more stable than While Peer-to-Peer Network are less stable if number
6.
Peer-to-Peer Network. of peer is increase.
Client-Server Network is used for both small While Peer-to-Peer Network is generally suited for
7.
12/23/2023 16
and large networks. small networks with fewer than 10 computers
 2-1 LAYERED TASKS

We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an

example, let us consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a
friend would be complex if there were no services
available from the post office.

Topics discussed in this section:

Sender, Receiver, and Carrier
Hierarchy

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 Figure 2.1 Tasks involved in sending a letter

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 2-2 THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.

Topics discussed in this section:

Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation
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 Note

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.

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 Figure 2.2 Seven layers of the OSI model

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 Figure 2.3 The interaction between layers in the OSI model

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 Figure 2.4 An exchange using the OSI model

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 2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

In this section we briefly describe the functions of each

layer in the OSI model.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer

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 Figure 2.5 Physical layer

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 Physical layer

The physical layer is also concerned with the following:

o Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium. The physical layer defines the
characteristics of the interface between the devices and the transmission medium. It also
defines the type of transmission medium.
o Representation of bits. The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits (sequence of
Os or 1s) with no interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals--
electrical or optical.
The physical layer defines the type of encoding (how Os and I s are changed to signals).
o Data rate. The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each second-is also defined by
the physical layer. In other words, the physical layer defines the duration of a bit, which is
how long it lasts.

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 Physical layer

Synchronization of bits. The sender and receiver not only must use the same bit rate but
also must be synchronized at the bit level. In other words, the sender and the receiver clocks
must be synchronized.
o Line configuration. The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the
media. In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are connected through a dedicated
link. In a multipoint configuration, a link is shared among several devices.
o Physical topology. The physical topology defines how devices are connected to make a
network. Devices can be connected by using a mesh topology (every device is connected to
every other device), a star topology (devices are connected through a central device), a ring
topology (each device is connected to the next, forming a ring), a bus topology (every device
is on a common link), or a hybrid topology (this is a combination of two or more topologies).

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 Physical layer

Transmission mode. The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission between
two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex. In simplex mode, only one device can send;
the other can only receive.
The simplex mode is a one-way communication. In the half-duplex mode, two devices can
send and receive, but not at the same time. In a full-duplex (or simply duplex) mode, two
devices can send and receive at the same time.

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 Note

The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.

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 Figure 2.6 Data link layer

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 Figure 2.6 Data link layer
Other responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:
Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into
manageable data units called frames.
Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network, the
data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the frame. If the
frame is intended for a system outside the sender's network, the receiver address is the address
of the device that connects the network to the next one.
 Flow control. If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate at
which data are produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to
avoid overwhelming the receiver.
Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding mechanisms to
detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate
frames. Error control is normally achieved through a trailer added to the end of the frame.
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 Figure 2.6 Data link layer
Access control. When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer
protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any given time.

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 Note

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.

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 Figure 2.7 Hop-to-hop delivery

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 Figure 2.8 Network layer

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 Figure 2.8 Network layer

The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet,

possibly across multiple networks (links).
Whereas the data link layer oversees the delivery of the packet between two systems on
the same network (links), the network layer ensures that each packet gets from its point of
origin to its final destination.
If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no need for a network
layer. However, if the two systems are attached to different networks (links) with connecting
devices between the networks (links), there is often a need for the network layer to
accomplish source-to-destination delivery.

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 Figure 2.8 Network layer

Other responsibilities of the network layer include the following:

Logical addressing. The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer handles the
addressing problem locally.
If a packet passes the network boundary, we need another addressing system to help
distinguish the source and destination systems.
The network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper layer that, among
other things, includes the logical addresses of the sender and receiver.
Routing. When independent networks or links are connected to create internetworks
(network of networks) or a large network, the connecting devices (called routers or
switches) route or switch the packets to their final destination. One of the functions of the
network layer is to provide this mechanism.

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 Note

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.

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 Figure 2.9 Source-to-destination delivery

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 Figure 2.10 Transport layer

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 Note

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.

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 Figure 2.11 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

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 Figure 2.12 Session layer

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 Session layer

The services provided by the first three layers (physical, data link, and network) are not
sufficient for some processes. The session layer is the network dialog controller.
It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction among communicating systems.
Specific responsibilities of the session layer include the following:
Dialog control. The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It allows the
communication between two processes to take place in either halfduplex (one way at a time)
or full-duplex (two ways at a time) mode.
Synchronization. The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or synChronization
points, to a stream of data.
For example, if a system is sending a file of 2000 pages, it is advisable to insert checkpoints
after every 100 pages to ensure that each 100-page unit is received and acknowledged
independently.
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 Session layer

In this case, if a crash happens during the transmission of page 523, the only pages that need
to be resent after system recovery are pages 501 to 523. Pages previous to 501 need not be
resent.

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 Note

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.

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 Figure 2.13 Presentation layer

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 Presentation layer

In this case, if a crash happens during the transmission of page 523, the only pages that need
to be resent after system recovery are pages 501 to 523. Pages previous to 501 need not be
resent. Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include the following:
Translation. The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually exchanging
information in the form of character strings, numbers, and so on.
The information must be changed to bit streams before being transmitted. Because different
computers use different encoding systems, the presentation layer is responsible for
interoperability between these different encoding methods.
The presentation layer at the sender changes the information from its sender-dependent
format into a common format.
The presentation layer at the receiving machine changes the common format into its

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receiver-dependent format. 2.48
 Presentation layer

Encryption. To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure privacy.

Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information to another form and
sends the resulting message out over the network.
Decryption reverses the original process to transform the message back to its original form.
Compression:Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the information.
Data compression becomes particularly important in the transmission of multimedia such as
text, audio, and video.

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 Note

The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.

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 Figure 2.14 Application layer

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 Application layer

The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the network.
It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file access
and transfer, shared database management, and other types of distributed information
services.
Specific services provided by the application layer include the following:
Network virtual terminal. A network virtual terminal is a software version of a physical
terminal, and it allows a user to log on to a remote host.
To do so, the application creates a software emulation of a terminal at the remote host. The
user's computer talks to the software terminal which, in turn, talks to the host, and vice
versa. The remote host believes it is communicating with one of its own terminals and allows
the user to log on.

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 Application layer

File transfer, access, and management: This application allows a user to access files in a
remote host (to make changes or read data), to retrieve files from a remote computer for use
in the local computer, and to manage or control files in a remote computer locally.
Mail services: This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.
Directory services. This application provides distributed database sources and access for
global information about various objects and services.

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 Note

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.

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 Figure 2.15 Summary of layers

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 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly

match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP protocol
suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-network,
internet, transport, and application. However, when
TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP
protocol suite is made of five layers: physical, data link,
network, transport, and application.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical and Data Link Layers
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
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 Figure 2.16 TCP/IP and OSI model

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 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
we can say that the host-to-network layer is equivalent to the
combination of the physical and data link layers.
The internet layer is equivalent to the network layer, and the
application layer is roughly doing the job of the session, presentation,
and application layers with the transport layer in TCPIIP taking care of
part of the duties of the session layer.
The TCPIIP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical, data link,
network, transport, and application.
The first four layers provide physical standards, network interfaces,
internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to the first four
layers of the OSI model.
The three topmost layers in the OSI model, however, are represented in
TCPIIP
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by a single layer called the application layer.
[email protected] 2.58
 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

At the transport layer, TCP/IP defines three protocols: Transmission

Control Protocol (TCP), User Datagram Protocol (UDP), and Stream
Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP).
At the network layer, the main protocol defined by TCP/IP is the
Internetworking Protocol (IP); there are also some other protocols that
support data movement in this layer.

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 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

Internetworking Protocol (IP)

The Internetworking Protocol (IP) is the transmission mechanism used
by the TCP/IP protocols. It is an unreliable and connectionless protocol-a
best-effort delivery service.
The term best effort means that IP provides no error checking or
tracking.
Address Resolution Protocol
The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used to associate a logical
address with a physical address.
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 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

On a typical physical network, such as a LAN, each device on a link

is identified by a physical or station address, usually imprinted on the
network interface card (NIC).
ARP is used to find the physical address of the node when its Internet
address is known.
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) allows a host to discover its
Internet address when it knows only its physical address.
It is used when a computer is connected to a network for the first time or
when a diskless computer is booted
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 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

Internet Control Message Protocol

The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a mechanism used by
hosts and gateways to send notification of datagram problems back to
the sender.
ICMP sends query and error reporting messages.
Internet Group Message Protocol
The Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP) is used to facilitate the
simultaneous transmission of a message to a group of recipients.
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 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

Transport Layer
Traditionally the transport layer was represented in TCP/IP by two protocols:
TCP and UDP.
IP is a host-to-host protocol, meaning that it can deliver a packet from one
physical device to another.
UDP and TCP are transport level protocols responsible for delivery of a
message from a process (running program) to another process.
A new transport layer protocol, SCTP, has been devised to meet the needs of
some newer applications.
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 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
User Datagram Protocol
The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is the simpler of the two standard TCPIIP
transport protocols.
It is a process-to-process protocol that adds only port addresses, checksum
error control, and length information to the data from the upper layer.
Transmission Control Protocol
The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) provides full transport-layer services
to applications.
TCP is a reliable stream transport protocol. The term stream, in this context,
means connection-oriented: A connection must be established between both
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 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

At the sending end of each transmission, TCP divides a stream of data into smaller
units called segments.
Each segment includes a sequence number for reordering after receipt, together
with an acknowledgment number for the segments received. Segments are
carried across the internet inside of IP datagrams.
At the receiving end, TCP collects each datagram as it comes in and reorders the
transmission based on sequence numbers.
Stream Control Transmission Protocol
The Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) provides support for newer
applications such as voice over the Internet.
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is a transport layer protocol [email protected]
combines the best features of UDP and TCP. 2.65
 2-5 ADDRESSING

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing

the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses

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 Figure 2.17 Addresses in TCP/IP

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 Addresses in TCP/IP

The physical address, also known as the link address, is the address of a node as defined by its LAN
or WAN. It is included in the frame used by the data link layer.
It is the lowest-level address.
The physical addresses have authority over the network (LAN or WAN).
The size and format of these addresses vary depending on the network.
For example, Ethernet uses a 6-byte (48-bit) physical address that is imprinted on the network
interface card (NIC).

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 Figure 2.18 Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

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 Example 2.1

In Figure 2.19 a node with physical address 10 sends a

frame to a node with physical address 87. The two nodes
are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the figure
shows, the computer with physical address 10 is the
sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is the
receiver.

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 Figure 2.19 Physical addresses

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 Example 2.2

Most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical

address written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2
hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as shown
below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B

A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

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 Example 2.3

Figure 2.20 shows a part of an internet with two routers

connecting three LANs. Each device (computer or router)
has a pair of addresses (logical and physical) for each
connection. In this case, each computer is connected to
only one link and therefore has only one pair of
addresses. Each router, however, is connected to three
networks (only two are shown in the figure). So each
router has three pairs of addresses, one for each
connection.

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 Figure 2.20 IP addresses

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 Example 2.4

Figure 2.21 shows two computers communicating via the

Internet. The sending computer is running three processes
at this time with port addresses a, b, and c. The receiving
computer is running two processes at this time with port
addresses j and k. Process a in the sending computer
needs to communicate with process j in the receiving
computer. Note that although physical addresses change
from hop to hop, logical and port addresses remain the
same from the source to destination.

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 Figure 2.21 Port addresses

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 Note

The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,

but the logical addresses usually remain the same.

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 Example 2.5

A port address is a 16-bit address represented by one

decimal number as shown.

753

A 16-bit port address represented

as one single number.

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 2-2 THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.

Topics discussed in this section:

Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation
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 7 Application

6 Presentation

5 Session

4 Transport INTRODUCTION
3 Network

2 Data Link

1 Physical

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 7 Application NETWORK GOALS

6 Presentation The two main benefits of networking computers are…

Communications
5 Session Information can be distributed very quickly, such as
email and video conferencing.
4 Transport
Saving Money
Resources such as information, software, and
3 Network hardware can be shared.

2 Data Link CPUs and hard disks can be pooled together to

create a more powerful machine.

1 Physical

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 7 Application APPLICATIONS

6 Presentation A lot of things we take for granted are the result of

computer networks.

5 Session • Email
• Chat
• Web sites
4 Transport
• Sharing of documents and pictures
• Accessing a centralized database of information
3 Network • Mobile workers

2 Data Link

1 Physical

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 7 Application NETWORK STRUCTURE

6 Presentation The subnet interconnects hosts.

Subnet
5 Session Carries messages from host to host. It is made up
of telecommunication lines (i.e. circuits, channels,
4 Transport trunks) and switching elements (i.e. IMPs, routers).

Hosts
3 Network End user machines or computers.

2 Data Link Q: Is the host part of the subnet?

1 Physical

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 7 Application NETWORK ARCHITECTURES

6 Presentation A set of layers and protocols is called the network

architecture.

5 Session 1. Protocol Hierarchies

Networks are organized as layers to reduce design
4 Transport complexity. Each layer offers services to the higher
layers. Between adjacent layers is an interface.
3 Network Services – connection oriented and
connectionless.
2 Data Link Interface – defines which primitives and services
the lower layer will offer to the upper layer.

1 Physical Primitives – operations such as request, indicate,

response, confirm.

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 7 Application NETWORK ARCHITECTURES

6 Presentation 2. Design Issues for the Layers

• Mechanism for connection establishment
• Rules for data transfer
5 Session • Error control
• Fast sender swamping a slow receiver
4 Transport • Inability of processes to accept long messages
• Routing in the case of multiple paths
3 Network

2 Data Link

1 Physical

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 7 Application OSI REFERENCE MODEL

6 Presentation The Open Systems Interconnection is the model

developed by the International Standards
Organization.
5 Session
Benefits
4 Transport • Interconnection of different systems (open)
• Not limited to a single vendor solution
3 Network
Negative Aspect
• Systems might be less secure
2 Data Link • Systems might be less stable

1 Physical

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 7 Application OSI REFERENCE MODEL

6 Presentation 1. Physical Layer

a) Convert the logical 1’s and 0’s coming from
layer 2 into electrical signals.
5 Session
b) Transmission of the electrical signals over a
communication channel.
4 Transport
Main topics:
3 Network • Transmission mediums
• Encoding
2 Data Link • Modulation
• RS232 and RS422 standards
• Repeaters
1 Physical • Hubs (multi-port repeater)

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 7 Application OSI REFERENCE MODEL

6 Presentation 2. Data Link Layer

a) Error control to compensate for the
imperfections of the physical layer.
5 Session
b) Flow control to keep a fast sender from
swamping a slow receiver.
4 Transport
Main topics:
3 Network • Framing methods
• Error detection and correction methods
2 Data Link • Flow control
• Frame format
• IEEE LAN standards
1 Physical • Bridges
• Switches (multi-port bridges)

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 7 Application OSI REFERENCE MODEL

6 Presentation 3. Network Layer

a) Controls the operation of the subnet.
5 Session b) Routing packets from source to destination.
c) Logical addressing.
4 Transport
Main topics:
• Internetworking
3 Network
• Routing algorithms
• Internet Protocol (IP) addressing
2 Data Link • Routers

1 Physical

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 7 Application OSI REFERENCE MODEL

6 Presentation 4. Transport Layer

a) Provides additional Quality of Service.
5 Session b) Heart of the OSI model.

Main topics:
4 Transport
• Connection-oriented and connectionless services
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
3 Network • User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

2 Data Link

1 Physical

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 7 Application OSI REFERENCE MODEL

6 Presentation 5. Session Layer

a) Allows users on different machines to establish
sessions between them.
5 Session
b) One of the services is managing dialogue
control.
4 Transport
c) Token management.

3 Network d) Synchronization.

2 Data Link

1 Physical

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 7 Application OSI REFERENCE MODEL

6 Presentation 6. Presentation Layer

a) Concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information.
5 Session
b) Preserves the meaning of the information.
4 Transport c) Data compression.
d) Data encryption.
3 Network

2 Data Link

1 Physical

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 7 Application OSI REFERENCE MODEL

6 Presentation 7. Application Layer

a) Provides protocols that are commonly needed.
5 Session
Main topics:
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
4 Transport • HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
3 Network • Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
• Network File System (NFS)
• Telnet
2 Data Link

1 Physical

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 7 Application SERVICES

6 Presentation Each layer provides services to the layer above it.

1. Terminologies
5 Session
Entities – active elements in each layer (e.g.
process, intelligent I/O chip).
4 Transport Peer Entities – entities in the same layer on
different machines.
3 Network Service Provider – Layer N.
Service User – Layer N + 1.
2 Data Link
Service Access Points – places where layer N + 1
can access services offered by layer N.
1 Physical

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 7 Application SERVICES

6 Presentation 2. Connection-Oriented and Connectionless

Connection-Oriented – before data is sent, the
service from the sending computer must establish
5 Session
a connection with the receiving computer.

4 Transport Connectionless – data can be sent at any time by

the service from the sending computer.
3 Network
Q: Is downloading a music file from the Internet
connection-oriented or connectionless?
2 Data Link
Q: Is email connection-oriented or connectionless?
1 Physical

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 7 Application SERVICES

6 Presentation 3. Service Primitives

Request – entity wants the service to do some
work
5 Session
Indicate – entity is to be informed about an event
4 Transport Response – entity responds to an event
Confirm – entity is to be informed about its request
3 Network
Sending Computer Receiving Computer

2 Data Link 4 Transport 4 Transport

1. request 4. confirm 2. indicate 3. response

1 Physical
3 Network 3 Network
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 7 Application BANDWIDTH

6 Presentation The capacity of the medium to transmit data.

Analog Bandwidth
5 Session • Measurement is in Hertz (Hz) or cycles/sec.

4 Transport Digital Bandwidth

• Measurement is in bits per second (bps).
3 Network
Q: Is 100MHz = 100Mbps?
2 Data Link Q: Is 100Mbps = 100MBps?

1 Physical

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 7 Application TRANSMISSION MEDIA

6 Presentation 1. Guided
Data is sent via a wire or optical cable.
5 Session Twisted Pair
Two copper wires are twisted together to reduce
the effect of crosstalk noise. (e.g. Cat5, UTP, STP)
4 Transport
Baseband Coaxial Cable
3 Network A 50-ohm cable used for digital transmission. Used
in 10Base2 and 10Base5.
2 Data Link Broadband Coaxial Cable
A 75-ohm cable used for analog transmission such
1 Physical as Cable TV.

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 7 Application TRANSMISSION MEDIA

6 Presentation Fiber Optic Cables

Two general types are multimode and single mode.
5 Session In multimode, light is reflected internally. Light
source is an LED.
4 Transport

3 Network In single mode, the light propagates in a straight

line. Light source come from expensive laser
diodes. Faster and longer distances as compared
2 Data Link to multimode.

1 Physical
* Fiber optic cables are difficult to tap (higher security)
and are normally used for backbone cabling.
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 7 Application TRANSMISSION MEDIA

6 Presentation 2. Unguided
Data is sent through the air.
5 Session
Line-of-sight
Transmitter and receiver must “see” each other,
4 Transport such as a terrestrial microwave system.

Communication Satellites
3 Network
A big microwave repeater in the sky. Data is
broadcasted, and can be “pirated.”
2 Data Link
Radio
Term used to include all frequency bands, such as
1 Physical
FM, UHF, and VHF television.

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 7 Application ANALOG TRANSMISSION

6 Presentation 1. Modulation
Modulating a sine wave carrier to convey data.
5 Session
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Amplitude is increased/decreased while frequency
4 Transport remains constant.

Frequency Modulation (FM)

3 Network
Frequency is increased/decreased while amplitude
remains constant.
2 Data Link
Phase Modulation
Wave is shifted, while amplitude and frequency
1 Physical
remains constant.

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 7 Application ANALOG TRANSMISSION

6 Presentation 2. Modems
A device that accepts digital signals and outputs a
modulated carrier wave, and vice versa.
5 Session
It is used to interconnect the digital computer to the
4 Transport analog telephone network.

* Modems for PC’s can be external or internal.

3 Network * Nokia makes modems for leased line connections.

2 Data Link

1 Physical

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 7 Application ANALOG TRANSMISSION

6 Presentation 3. RS-232 and RS-449

Two well known physical layer standards.
5 Session
RS-232
• 20 kbps
4 Transport • Cables up to 15 meters
• Unbalanced transmission (common ground)
3 Network
RS-422
2 Data Link • 2 Mbps at 60 meters
• 1 Mbps at 100 meters
• Balanced transmission (a pair of wires for Tx, Rx)
1 Physical

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 7 Application DIGITAL TRANSMISSION

6 Presentation 1. Encoding Schemes

Converting logical data into electrical signals
suitable for transmission.
5 Session
Manchester
4 Transport • Mid bit transition for clock synchronization and
data
• Logic 0 = high to low transition
3 Network • Logic 1 = low to high transition

2 Data Link Differential Manchester

• Mid bit transition for clock synchronization only
1 Physical • Logic 0 = transition at the beginning of each bit
period
• Logic 1 = no transition at the beginning of each bit
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 7 Application DIGITAL TRANSMISSION

6 Presentation 2. Repeaters and Hubs

These are physical layer devices.
5 Session Repeaters
• Restores the strength of an attenuated signal.
4 Transport • Used to increase the transmission distance.
• Does not filter data traffic.

3 Network Hubs
• Multi-port repeater.
2 Data Link • Interconnects several computers.
• Does not filter data traffic.
1 Physical

* Picture from 3com.com

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 7 Application

6 Presentation

5 Session

4 Transport NETWORK LAYER

3 Network

2 Data Link

1 Physical

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 7 Application OVERVIEW

6 Presentation 1. Routing Algorithms

• Shortest Path
• Flooding
5 Session • Flow-based
• Distance Vector
• Link State
4 Transport
• Hierarchical
• Broadcast
3 Network • Multicast
• Routing for Mobile Hosts
2 Data Link 2. Congestion control
3. IP Addressing
4. Routers
1 Physical

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 7 Application ROUTING ALGORITHMS

6 Presentation 1. Shortest Path

B(A,2) C(B,3)
5 Session B 1 C
2
4 Transport A(-,-) 3 2 3
D(E,3)
2
A D F(E,4)
3 Network 1
1 F
E(A,2) 2
2 Data Link 2
E
1 Physical
A–E–D–F
A – E – F is the answer.
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 7 Application ROUTING ALGORITHMS

6 Presentation 2. Flooding

IMP Packet to IMP C

5 Session Packet B
Packet to IMP D
4 Transport Packet to IMP E

To prevent packets from circulating indefinitely, a

3 Network packet has a hop counter. Every time a packet arrives
at an IMP, the hop counter is decrease by 1. Once the
2 Data Link hop counter of a packet reaches 0, the packet is
discarded.

1 Physical

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 7 Application IP ADDRESSING

6 Presentation Format
xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx
where x is either 0 or 1
5 Session
Example 1:
4 Transport 11111111. 11111111.00000000.00000000

255.255.0.0
3 Network
Example 2:
2 Data Link 11111111. 11111111.10000000.00000000

1 Physical 255.255.192.0

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 7 Application IP ADDRESSING

6 Presentation Network Address

Example 1:
5 Session IP address of computer 180.100.7.1
Mask 255.255.0.0
Network address 180.100.0.0
4 Transport
Example 2:
3 Network IP address of computer 180.100.7.1
Mask 255.255.255.0
2 Data Link Network address 180.100.7.0

Example 3:
1 Physical
IP address of computer 180.100.7.2
Mask 255.255.192.0
Network address 180.100.0.0
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 7 Application IP ADDRESSING

6 Presentation Mask

Valid mask are contiguous 1’s from left to right.

5 Session
Examples:
4 Transport Valid
255.0.0.0
255.255.0.0
3 Network
255.255.255.0

2 Data Link Invalid

255.1.0.0
255.0.255.0
1 Physical
255.255.64.0
200.255.0.0
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 7 Application IP ADDRESSING

6 Presentation Subnets
The Internet is running out of IP address. One solution
is to subnet a network address.
5 Session
This is done by borrowing host bits to be used as
4 Transport network bits.

Example:
3 Network
Class B mask 255.255.0.0
Borrowing 1 bit gives a subnet mask of 255.255.128.0
2 Data Link Borrowing 2 bits gives a subnet mask of 255.255.192.0
Borrowing 3 bits gives a subnet mask of 255.255.224.0
Borrowing 4 bits gives a subnet mask of 255.255.240.0
1 Physical

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 7 Application IP ADDRESSING

6 Presentation Example:
Given an IP address of 180.200.0.0, subnet by
borrowing 4 bits.
5 Session
Subnet mask = 255.255.240.0
4 Transport The 4 bits borrowed are value 128, 64, 32, 16. This will
create 16 sub networks, where the first and last will be
unusable.
3 Network
Sub network address:
2 Data Link 180.200.0.0
180.200.16.0
180.200.32.0
1 Physical
180.200.48.0
180.200.64.0
etc…
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 7 Application IP ADDRESSING

6 Presentation The first 3 usable sub networks are:

180.200.16.0
180.200.32.0
5 Session 180.200.48.0

4 Transport For sub network 180.200.16.0, the valid IP address

are:

3 Network 180.200.16.1 to 180.200.31.254

2 Data Link Directed broadcast address is:

180.200.31.255
1 Physical

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 7 Application ROUTERS

6 Presentation A layer 3 device that is used to interconnect 2 or more

logical networks.

5 Session Can filter broadcast traffic, preventing broadcast traffic

from one network from reaching another network.
4 Transport

3 Network 180.200.0.0 202.5.3.0

2 Data Link

1 Physical

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Reference
• Forouzan, B.A. Data Communicaiton and Networking, McGraw- Hill
Education. Global edition 5e(© 2013).

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