UNIT TWO

PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN

 How do you think human beings came into being?
 What do you know about the domestication of plants and
animals?
 Explain how trade facilitates peoples’ relations.
 Define language and language families.
 What is religion?
 Can you name some religious practices in Ethiopia and the
Horn?
2.1. Human Evolution

1
1
2
 Cont. . .
 East African Rift Valley is the cradle of humanity
 biological and cultural evolution
Biological Evolution
1. A fossil named Chororapithecus dated 10 million B. P.
was unearthed in Anchar (in West Hararghe) in 2007
2. Ardipithicus kadabba (dated 5.8-5.2 million years BP)
was discovered in Middle Awash.
3. Ardipithicus ramidus (dated 4.2 million B.P.) was
discovered at Aramis in Afar in 1994.
4. Other Australopithecines were uncovered at Belohdelie
(dated back 3.6 million years B. P.) in Middle Awash.

3
 Cont. . .
 A three years old child’s fossil named as Australopithecus
afarensis, Selam, dated to 3.3 million years B.P was also
discovered at Dikika, Mille, Afar in 2000.
 Another Australopithecus afarnesis (Lucy/Dinkinesh,
dated c. 3.18 million years B. P.) with 40% complete body
parts, weight 30kg, height 1.07 meters with a pelvis looks
like bipedal female was discovered at Hadar in Afar in
1974 A. D.
 Fossil named Australopithecus anamensis was
discovered around Lake Turkana.
 An eco-fact named as Australopithecus garhi (means
surprise in Afar language) dated to 2.5 million years B.P
was discovered at Bouri, Middle Awash, between 1996 and
4
1999.
 Cont. . .
 development of the human brain was the main feature of the
next stage of human evolution
- genus Homo, believed to have emerged 2-2.5 million
-Homo habilis (means human being + skillful use of hand)
*dated 1.9 myBP. has been found in the Lower Omo
-A fossil named Homo erectus (walking upright,1. 6 mBP.)
-discovered at Melka Kunture, Konso Gardula and Gadeb
with 900-1100 cc brain size.
-Homo erectus seems to have originated in Africa and then
spread out to the rest of the world
-Skeleton of Archaic Homo sapiens (knowledgeable human
being, dated 400, 000 years B.P.) named Bodo with brain size of
1300-1400 cc was discovered in Middle Awash.
5
 Cont. . .
- Fossils of Homo sapiens sapiens (100, 000 years B.P.)
were discovered at Porc Epic near Dire Dawa, and Kibish
around Lower Omo (in 1967).
- In 2004, Kibish fossils were re-dated to 195, 000 B. P, the
oldest date in the world for modern Homo sapiens
- Homo sapiens idaltu, found in Middle Awash in 1997,
lived about 160, 000 years B.P.
Cultural Evolution
 technological changes that brought socio-economic
transformation on human life.
 Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age. 67
 Cont. . .
1. Stone Age
- first technologies to be developed by human beings
- Based on features, ways and period of production, stone
tools can be grouped in to:
A. Mode I (Olduwan)- discovered Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania)
- characterized by crude and mono-facial styles
-produced by the direct percussion.
B. Mode II (Acheulean- first report at St. Acheul, France
- produced by indirect percussion by using hand-ax or
hammer
- characterized by bifacial, pointed and convex features.
C. Mode III (Sangoon)-
- characterized by flexible and fine form of production by
the use of obsidian 77
 Cont. . .

 Olduwan tools made and used by Homo habilis were

discovered near Gona (dated 2.52 myB.P. in 1992) and at
Shungura in Afar.
 Homo erectus produced Acheulean tools dated back to
1.7.million years B.P, invented fire and started burial
practice.
 Acheulian tools (over a million years old) were found at
Kella, Middle Awash in 1963.
 Homo sapiens produced Sangoon tools that trace back up
to 300,000 years B. P. Gademotta site in central Ethiopian
Rift Valley has been dated back to 200, 000 B. P.
 Gorgora, Ki’one and Yabello in Ethiopia and Midhidhishi
and Gudgud in Somalia have offered noteworthy 8
 Cont. . .
 The period of usage of stone tools is divided into sub-
periods.
A. the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age, 3.4 million to 11, 000 yB.
P.)
- period when human being sheltered in caves
- developed language
- used stone , bone, wood, furs, and skin materials to
prepare food and clothing.
- sex-age labor division with able-bodied males as hunters
of fauna, and children and females as gatherers of flora.
B. Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age /11, 000-10,000 B. P.)-
- transition between Paleolithic and Neolithic (New Stone
Age /10, 000-6, 000 B.P) 9
 2.2. Neolithic Revolution
 humans transformed from mobile to sedentary way of
life.
 a radical shift involving changes from hunting and
gathering to the domestication of plants and animals.
 aware of growing cycle of most grass types
 began to grow common & yield seeds that are more edible
 smaller animals were easy to domesticate
 chiefly in the more elevated and wetter-parts, people
cultivated plants including Teff (Eragrotis teff), dagussa
(Eleusine coracana), nug (Guzotia abyssinica), enset
(Ensete ventricosum)
10
 StatementCont. . . Problem
of the
 polished axes, ceramics, grinding stones, beads, stone
figures and animal remains discovered in Emba-Fakeda
(Adigrat), Aqordat and Barentu (Eritrea), Gobodara rock
shelter (near Aksum)
 Remains associated with domesticated cattle, chickpeas
and vegetables – Lalibela Cave
- Laga Oda rock shelter (near Charchar)
- Lake Basaqa (near Matahara)
2.3. The Peopling of the Region
2.3.1. Languages and Linguistic Processes
 90 languages with 200 dialects in Ethiopia and the Horn.
 two major language super families of Ethiopia and the
Horn are; Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan . 11
 Cont. . .
A. Afro-Asiatic
 Cushitic: divided into four branches
1. Northern: is represented by Beja, spoken in northwestern
Eritrea bordering the Sudan.
2. Central: Agaw includes Awign, Kunfel, Qimant;
Hamtanga and Bilen.
3. Eastern: this includes diversified linguistic groups like
Afar, Ale, Arbore, Baiso, Burji, Darashe, Dasanech,
Gedeo, Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata, Konso, Libido, Mosiye,
Oromo, Saho, Sidama, Somali, Tambaro, Tsemai, etc.
4. Southern: represented by Dhalo in Kenya and Nbugua in
Tanzania.
 Semitic: is divided into two: 12
12
 Cont. . .
North: Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken around Eritrea-Sudanese
border); Tigre (spoken in Eritrean Lowland); Tigrigna (spoken
in highland Eritrea and Tigray).
South: is further divided into two:
- Transverse: Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane &
Zay.
- Outer: Gafat (extinct), Gurage and Mesmes (endangered)
 Omotic: Anfillo, Ari, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Boro-
Shinasha, Chara, Dawuro, Dime, Dizi, Gamo, Gofa,
Hamer, Karo, Keficho, Konta, Korete, Male, Melo, Oyda,
Sezo, Shekkacho, Sheko, Wolayta, Yem, Zayse etc.
B.Nilo-Saharan: Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kacipo-Balesi,
Komo, Kunama, Kwama, Kwegu, Majang, Mi'en, Murle,
Mursi, Nara, Nu’er, Nyangatom, Opo, Uduk... 13
 Cont…
 Language classification did not remain static
 Factors like population movements, warfare, trade,
religious and territorial expansion, urbanization etc. have
resulted in intense linguistic processes that forced
languages to be affected
 In this process, some languages died out or have been in
danger of extinction while others thrived over time.
2.3.2. Settlement Patterns
 long historical processes in northeast Africa resulted in:
1. Settlement pattern
2. the distribution of peoples across the landscape
 In some areas, settlement was dense and in other areas
sparse. 14
 Cont. . .
 Some people inhabited extensive highlands and others the
lowlands.
 the spatial distribution of peoples in the region was
shaped and reshaped by:
A. environmental
B. socio-economic
C. political processes
 in early times, Cushitic and Semitic peoples had
inhabited the area between the Red Sea in the east and Blue
Nile in the west spread to d/t directions
 the Cushites have evolved to be the largest linguistic
group spread in areas b/n Sudan to Tanzania
15
 Cont. . .
 the Semitic peoples spread over large area and eventually
settled the northern, north central, northeastern, south
central and eastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn.
 The Semites are the second majority next to the Cushites.
 Except the Shinasha, who live in Benishangul-Gumuz and
the South Mao in Wallagga, the majority of Omotic peoples
have inhabited southwestern Ethiopia along the Omo River
basin. extended much further to the north in early times
 In the west, the Nilotes are largely settled along the
Ethiopia-Sudanese border although some of the Chari-Nile
family inhabited as far as southern Omo. -The latter are
identified as the Karamojo cluster living around Turkana
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 2.3.3. Economic Formations
 The domestication of plants and animals gave humanity
two interdependent modes of life:
A. Agriculture
B. Pastoralism
 it is very rare to think of farmer without a head of cattle
 these two forms of livelihood have coexisted and quite
often intermingled
 Topographic features and climatic conditions largely
influenced economic formations
 A predominantly pastoral economy has characterized the
eastern lowland region since early periods.
17
 Cont. . .
*production of camel, goat, and cattle
*Afar, Saho, Somali, Karayu and Borana Oromo
*Afar and Karrayu have depended on the Awash River
*the Somali deal to Wabi Shebelle and Genale (Jubba)
 plateaus sustained plough agriculture for thousands of years
*Majority of the populations engaged in mixed farming.
*sedentary agriculture started and advanced (10, 000 years
*Omotic has been mixed farming & trade in northern Omo
*southern Omo have predominantly practiced pastoralism
and fishing.
*Many of the Omotic groups metallurgy, weaving .. .

18
 Cont. . .
 In the sparsely populated western lowland region, the
dominant economic formations were pastoralism, shifting
agriculture, fishing, apiculture and hunting.
 sorghum, millet, cotton and other crops have been
largely cultivated in the lowlands along Ethio-Sudanese
border since antiquity.
 The Nilotes along the Blue Nile and Baro-Akobo Rivers
have been shifting cultivators where sorghum has been a
staple food.
 Among majority Nilotic communities, cattle have high
economic and social values.
 Berta and other Nilotes had trade and other social
contacts with northern Sudan.
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 2.4. Religion and Religious Processes
2.4.1. Indigenous Religion:
 beliefs and practices native to the region
 followed by the local people since ancient times
 distinctive mark of them is belief in Supreme Being
 but special powers are attributed to natural phenomena,
which are considered sacred.
 Spiritual functionaries – officiate over rituals
- propitiate divinities
-intermediaries b/n society & spirits
1. Waqeffanna of the Oromo
- the existence of one Supreme Being called Waqa
- Waqa manifested through the spirits called Ayyana
20
 Cont. . .
i. Abdar/Dache (soil fertility spirit)
ii. Atete (women or human and animal fertility spirit)
iii. Awayi/Tiyyana (sanctity spirit)
iv. Balas (victory spirit)
v. Chato/Dora (wild animals defender)
vi. Gijare/ Nabi (father and mother’s sprit)
vii. Jaricha (peace spirit)
viii. Qasa (anti-disease spirit)

21
 Revered experts known as Qallu (male) and Qallitti
(female) have maintained link between the Ayyana and the
believers.
 On Wednesday and Friday nights, there is Dalaga/ecstasy
at which Qallu or Qallitti is possessed by Ayyana so that
s/he can interpret mysteries.
 Abba Muda ----- anointment father
 Abba Muda had turban surrirufa of tri-colors: black at top,
red at center and white at bottom representing those in pre-
active life, active (Luba) and those in post-active life
respectively.
2. Hadiya Supreme Being, Waa

22
 Cont. . .
 exist before everything (hundam issancho) or create world
(qoccancho)
 whose eyes are represented by elincho (sun) and agana
(moon)
 notable spirits include; -Jara (male’s protector)
- Idota (female’s guard)
 prayers and sacrifices at Shonkolla and Kallalamo
mountains
 One of Hadiya's clans, Worqimene, is believed to have the
power to send rain in drought.
 Fandanano (sing. Fandancho) practice

23
 Cont. . .
3. The Kambata have Negita or Aricho Magano/Sky God and
religious officials known as Magnancho
4. The Gedeo called the Supreme Being, Mageno and had
thanks giving ceremony called Deraro.
5. The Konso religion is centered on worship of Waaq/Wakh
6. The Gojjam Agaw used to call the Supreme Being Diban
(Sky God).
7. Among sections of the Gurage, there have been Waq/Goita
(Supreme Being), Bozha (thunder deity) and Damwamwit
(health goddess).
8. Yem worshipped Ha’o (Sky God).

24
 Cont. . .
-Religious functionaries were known as Magos
9. The Konta’s spirit-cult was called Docho.
10. The Wolaita called God Tosa
 Annual worship of spirits was performed at a sacred place
called Mitta usually at the end of May and beginning of
June to offer sacrifice of the first fruits called Teramo or
Pageta (Dubusha).
11. The Keficho called Supreme Being as Yero
- spirit as Eqo
- Harvest spirit is called Kollo and sacrifice to it is dejo
12. The Boro-Shinasha people believe in super natural power
called Iqa
25
 Cont. . .
 praying for the prevention of drought, flooding, erosion,
disease and starvation
-Gure Shuka Prayer: preservation of locality by
slaughtering
- Shode De’na, praying & slaughtering when unexpected
disease happens.
- Marrowa Shuka; slaughtering for children to grow
without disease and to prevent children from evil spirits
attack; for rehabilitation of wealth; to promote
harmonious way of life and productivities in the family
13. The Nuer believe in Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven)
-coming of God through rain, lightning and thunder
-rainbow is necklace of God.
26
 Cont. . .
 2.4.2. Judaism
 generally recognized as Israelite religion that differs from
Rabbinic Judaism
 Bete-Israel accounts trace from:
A. ancient migration of the Tribe of Dan to Ethiopia
B. Exodus of the sons of Moses perhaps in (1400-1200 B.C.).
C. Babylonian exile after the death of King Solomon
D. The return of Menilek I in the years b/n 974 and 932 B.C
E. arrived of Azonos and Phinhas in the 6th century A.D.
 Tadese Tamirat and Kay Shelmay argue that the Bete-Israel
are remnants of old testament followers of orthodox
Christianity rather than Jews migrated to here
 The Jews developed and lived for centuries in northern
27
 2.4.3. Christianity
 Christianity became state religion in 334 A.D.
 King Ezana (r. 320-360) embraced Christianity
 conversion of the king were Syrian brothers, Aedesius and
Frumentius (Fremnatos).
 When Fremnatos (Kasate Birhane or Abba Salama) visited
Alexandria, Patriarch Atnatewos (328-373) appointed him
as the first Bishop of Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC).
 practiced until 1959, when Abune Baslios became the first
Ethiopian Patriarch.
 Christianity was further expanded to the mass of the
society the later part the fifth century, during the reign of
Ella Amida II (478-86) by the Nine Saints
28
 Cont. . .
 The saints also translated the Bible and other religious
books into Geez
 The expansion of Christianity continued in Zagwe period
(1150-1270)
-Rock-hewn churches of Lalibela
 gained fresh momentum during the early Medieval Period
(1270-1527)
- many churches & monasteries were constructed.
-Example; Debra-Bizan of Hamasen in Eritrea,
Debra-Hayiq in Wollo, Debre-Dima and Debre-Werq
in Gojjam, Debra-Libanos in Shewa, Birbir Mariam in Gamo,
Debre-Asabot on the way to Harar
29
 Cont. . .
- as repositories of ancient manuscripts and precious
objects of art
 From mid-sixteenth to the early seventeenth centuries,
the Jesuit missionaries tried to convert Monophysite EOC
to Dyophysite Catholic.
-led to bloody conflicts that led to expulsion of the Jesuits
- the Jesuits intervention triggered religious
controversies within the EOC
 As of 1804, missionaries’ religious expansion also
resulted in the conclusion of treaties between European
diplomats and Ethiopian authorities.
1. The Catholic Giuseppe Sapeto (Lazarist mission founder)
30
 Cont. . .
2. Giustino De Jacobis (Capuchin order founder)
3. Cardinal Massaja, Antoine and Arnauld d'Abbadie active.
Protestantism:
A. Anglican Church Missionary Society (ACMS)
B. Church Missionary Society of London (CMSL)
C. Wesleyan Methodist Society
D. Protestant missionaries under such leaders as Samuel
Gobat, C.W. Isenberg and J. L. Krapf.
 Systematic approach of trained Protestants enabled them
to win confidence of local people.
 They translated spiritual books into vernaculars
 They adopted old names for Supreme Being like
Waqayyo, Tosa 31
 Cont. . .
 Village schools were established as centers of preaching
the faith.
 These schools were open to all children of chiefs and
farmers.
 They also provided medical facilities.
 All these attracted a large number of followers.
2.4.4. Islam
 When Prophet Mohammed had preached Islam in Mecca
since 610 AD, he faced opposition from the Quraysh rulers.
 the Prophet sent some of his early followers to Aksum
including his daughter Rukiya and her husband Uthman
as well as the Prophet's future wives Umm Habiba and
Umm Salma to Aksum
32
 Cont. . .
- The first group of refugees was led by Jafar Abu Talib.
- the Prophet said of Ethiopia, "…a king under whom none
are persecuted. It is a land of righteousness, where God
will give relief from what you are suffering.“
- The then Aksumite king, Armah Ella Seham (Ashama b.
Abjar or Ahmed al-Nejash in Arabic sources), gave them
asylum from 615-28.
- Leaders of the Quraysh asked Armah to repatriate the
refugees, but the king did not comply.
- Armah is said to have replied, "If you were to offer me a
mountain of gold I would not give up these people who
have taken refugees with me.”
 Islam spread to the Horn of Africa largely through
peaceful ways including trade. 33
 Cont. . .
- well established in Dahlak (Alalay) Islands on the Red Sea by
the beginning of the eighth century.
 In the early tenth century, the Muslim community on the
islands developed a sultanate.
-Muslims settled other places on the Red Sea coast.
-from these coastal areas that Islam gradually spread among
the predominantly pastoral communities of the interior,
largely through the agency of preachers and merchants.
 the Dahlak route played a minor role in the introduction of
Islam into the interior due to:
1. Christianity was strongly entrenched as a state religion in
Aksum
2. states of northern Ethiopia prohibited open proselytization of
Islam. 34
 Cont. . .
- the port of Zeila on western coast of the Gulf of Aden
served as an important gateway for the introduction of
Islam into present-day Shewa, Wollo and Hararghe.
- From the coastal areas, it radiated to central, southern,
and eastern Ethiopia through the role of Muslim clerics
who followed in the footsteps of traders.
- Sheikh Hussein of Bale, a Muslim saint (Waliy) of
medieval period, played very important role in the
expansion of Islam into Bale, Arsi and other southeastern
parts of Ethiopia and the Horn
- Another Islamic center in this region is Sof Umar cave.
 Islam was introduced into Somali territories in the eighth
century A. D. through Benadir coasts of Moqadishu,
Brava and Merca. 35
 Cont. . .
- Abu Bakr Ibn Fukura al Din Sahil set up Moqadishu Minirate
c.1269.
 mosques, Islamic learning and pilgrimage centers used as
depositories of cultures, traditions and literature of local Muslims.
UNIT THREE
POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN TO
THE END OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY
3.1. Emergence of States
beginning of sedentary agriculture

build houses near cultivated plots

fencing both farming fields and residences

36
harvested crops stored and protected from humidity and rodents.