Thermodynamics

Dr. Hafiz Muhibb Ullah Zulkafal

 Thermodynamics
 The study of thermodynamics is concerned with ways energy is
stored within a body and how energy transformations, which involve
heat and work, may take place.
 Thermodynamics is the science of the relationship between heat,
work, temperature, and energy.

 Thermodynamics is the study of the inter-relation between heat, work and

internal energy of a system and its interaction with its environment..

 Thermodynamics: Is the quantitative relationship between heat and

other forms of energy
 Thermodynamics Approaches
• Approaches to studying thermodynamics
– Macroscopic (Classical thermodynamics)
• study large number of particles (molecules)
that make up the substance in question
• does not require knowledge of the behavior of
individual molecules
– Microscopic (Statistical thermodynamics)
• concerned within behavior of individual
particles (molecules)
• study average behavior of large groups of
individual particles
 Applications of Thermodynamics
n

Car radiators Power plants

Refrigeration systems
In the study of thermodynamics
the universe is divided into two parts, the
system, and the surrounding.
• System:
A specified part of the universe that is under
observation
The material in the portion of Space to be anlyzed

• Surroundings:
part other than the universe is called
surroundings
Exterior environment
It is a region where measurements are made
relative to the system.
• Boundary:
A separator, real or imaginary, between system
and surroundings
 For example
if we are performing an experiment in the lab, a
beaker, flask, or burette in which a reaction is
occurring is called a system, while all other
things in the lab are the surrounding.
 Types of System
There are three types of systems in
thermodynamics
Open System
Closed System
Isolated
An open system can exchange both energy and
matter with its surroundings. The stovetop
example would be an open system, because heat
and water vapor can be lost to the air.
 Closed System
A closed system is a natural physical system that
does not allow transfer of matter in or out of the
system, although – in the contexts of physics,
chemistry, engineering, etc. – the transfer of
energy (e.g. as work or heat) is allowed.
 Examples of a closed system

• The earth is a closed system. It receives lots of energy

from the sun but the exchange of matter with the outside
is not possible.
• Covered beaker of water. It is a closed system because
only heat energy can leave or enter, the amount of matter
(water) will always remain the same unless disturbed.
• Putting an ice bag on an injury with some bag or plastic to
contain water from entering, if there is a wound.
• Closed systems are not real.
• They are imaginary systems.
 Open system

• The system which can exchange both matter

and energy with surroundings is called an
open system. They are a portion and in
intimate contact with the larger system. Open
systems are sometimes termed flow systems,
because of the ability to exchange mass of a
substance.
 Examples of an open system

• Human body.
• An automobile engine.
• A beaker of water, where water can evaporate
and the beaker does not insulate inside at all.
• All real systems are open systems
 Isolated system

• The system in which neither energy nor

matter can be exchanged with surroundings is
called an isolated system. An isolated system
may be a portion of larger systems, but they
do not communicate with outside in any way.
 Examples of an isolated system

• The physical universe is an isolated system.

• Combustion of glucose in a bomb calorimeter
is an isolated system unless some real
parameters take place.
• A closed thermos bottle or a sealed vacuum
flask is essentially an isolated system if the
real exceptions are avoided.
Muhibb Muhibb
Ullah Ullah
 State in Thermodynamics
• A Thermodynamic system is a specific space or
macroscopic region in the universe, whose
state can be expressed in terms of pressure,
temperature, and volume, and in which one or
more than one Thermodynamic process
occurs.
 State Variables
• Every equilibrium state of a thermodynamic
system can be described by specific values of
macroscopic variables. These variables are
also called state variables. The equilibrium of a
gas can be described by its pressure,
temperature, volume, and mass.
 Thermodynamic State Variables
• Every equilibrium state of a thermodynamic
system can be described by specific values of
macroscopic variables. These variables are
also called state variables. The equilibrium of a
gas can be described by its pressure,
temperature, volume, and mass.
 State Variables
State of a thermodynamic system is defined by its
internal energy = U
Entropy = S
as well as a set of state variables, including
temperature T,
hydrostatic pressure P,
volume V,
and number of moles of components n.
The former two thermodynamic quantities are
functions of the state variables.
 Temperature
• Temperature is a physical property of matter
that quantitatively expresses hot and cold.
• It is the manifestation of thermal energy,
present in all matter, which is the source of
the occurrence of heat, a flow of energy, when
a body is in contact with another that is colder.
Temperature is measured with a thermometer.
 Temperature
Temperature is a measure of hotness or coldness
expressed in terms of any of several scales and
indicating the direction in
Which heat energy will spontaneously flow
from a hotter body (one at a higher temperature)
to a colder body
It reflects the kinetic energy of particles of
matter.
 Absolute Zero
• theory that there can be no temperature in
the universe lower than zero on the Kelvin
scale, known as “absolute zero”
• This is the point where every molecule stops
moving..
1. Celsius scale.
2. Kelvin scale.
3. Fahrenheit scale.
4. Rankine scale.
5. Delisle scale.
6. Sir Isaac Newton's degree of temperature.
7. Réaumur scale.
8. Rømer scale.
 Temperature Scales
There are different temperature scales
• Fahrenheit
• Celsius
• Kelvin
they all do one thing: put a number to the heat
energy possessed by an object
• In 1597, Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei invented a simple
water thermoscope, a device that consisted of a long glass
tube inverted in a sealed jar that contained both air and
water. When the jar was heated, the air expanded and pushed
the liquid up the tube. The water level in the tube could be
compared at different temperatures to show relative changes
as heat was added or removed.
 Fahrenheit

Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686-1736) was a German physicist

invented the alcohol thermometer in 1709
the mercury thermometer in 1714.
The Fahrenheit temperature scale was developed in 1724.
Fahrenheit originally established a scale in which the temperature of an
ice-water-salt mixture was set at 0 degrees. The temperature of an ice-
water (no salt) mixture was set at 30 degrees
the temperature of the human body was set at 96 degrees. Using this
scale, Fahrenheit measured the temperature of boiling water as 212°F
on his scale.
He later adjusted the freezing point of water from 30°F to 32°F, thus
making the interval between the freezing and boiling points of water an
even 180 degrees (and making body temperature the familiar 98.6°F).
The Fahrenheit scale is still commonly used.
 Celsius

Anders Celsius (1701-1744) was a Swedish astronomer

invented centigrade scale in 1742.
Celsius chose the melting point of ice and the boiling point of
water as his two reference temperatures to provide for a simple
and consistent method of thermometer calibration.
Celsius divided the difference in temperature between the
freezing and boiling points of water into 100 degrees
thus the name centi, meaning one hundred, and grade, meaning
degrees
After Celsius's death, the Celsius scale, the freezing point of
water was set at 0°C and the boiling point of water at 100°C.
it is more compatible with the base ten format of the
International System (SI) of metric measurement
 Kelvin

Lord William Kelvin (1824-1907) was a Scottish physicist

Devised the Kelvin (K) scale in 1854
The Kelvin scale is based on the idea of absolute zero, the theoretical temperature at which all
molecular motion stops and no discernible energy can be detected
The zero point on the Kelvin scale is the lowest possible temperature that exists in the universe: -
273.15ºC.
The Kelvin scale uses the same unit of division as the Celsius scale; however, it resets the zero
point to absolute zero: -273.15ºC.
The freezing point of water is therefore 273.15 Kelvins and 373.15 K is the boiling point of
water.
The Kelvin scale, like the Celsius scale, is a standard SI unit of measurement used commonly in
scientific measurements.
Since there are no negative numbers on the Kelvin scale (because theoretically nothing can be
colder than absolute zero), it is very convenient to use Kelvins when measuring extremely low
Inter conversion of Different Temperatures

From to Fahrenheit to Celsius to Kelvin

ºF F (ºF - 32)/1.8 (ºF-32)*5/9+273.15

ºC (ºC * 1.8) + 32 C ºC + 273.15

K (K-273.15)*9/5+32 K - 273.15 K
 Thermal Equilibrium
• When two objects in contact with each other are at the
same temperature, they are said to be in thermal
equilibrium.
• When two objects not in contact with each other are at the
same pressure, they are said to be in thermal equilibrium.
 Thermal Equilibrium
• Thermal Equilibrium
• An important concept related to temperature is thermal
equilibrium. Two objects are in thermal equilibrium if
they are in close contact that allows either to gain energy
from the other, but nevertheless, no net energy is
transferred between them. Even when not in contact,
they are in thermal equilibrium if, when they are placed
in contact, no net energy is transferred between them. If
two objects remain in contact for a long time, they
typically come to equilibrium. In other words, two
objects in thermal equilibrium do not exchange energy.