•Overview.
Data Structures
•Algorithm Analysis.
Prof. Dr. Shamim Al Mamun
Objectives
• Be familiar with problem solving.
• Be able to develop (and implement) algorithms.
• Be able to trace algorithms.
• Be able to select appropriate data structures and algorithms for given
problems.
Background
• Prerequisites:
• Variables and expressions.
• Methods (functions or procedures ).
• Decision structures( like if-statements and switch-
statements.
• Iteration structures (for-loops and while-loops).
• Classes and objects
What is data?
• Data
• A collection of facts from which conclusion may be drawn.
• e.g. Data: Temperature 35°C; Conclusion: It is hot.
• Types of data
• Textual: For example, your name (Alya)
• Numeric: For example, your ID (090254)
• Audio: For example, your voice
• Video: For example, your voice and picture
• (...)
Data Types & Data Structures
• Applications/programs read data, store data temporarily, process it
and finally output results.
• What is data? Numbers, Characters, etc.
Data Application/ Data
Program
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Data Types & Data Structures
• Data is classified into data types. e.g. char, float, int, etc.
• A data type is (i) a domain of allowed values and (ii) a set of
operations on these values.
• Compiler signals an error if wrong operation is performed on data of
a certain type. For example, char x,y,z; z = x*y is not
allowed.
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Data Types & Data Structures
• Examples
Data Type Domain Operations
boolean 0,1 and, or, =, etc.
char ASCII =, <>, <, etc.
integer -maxint to +, _, =, ==,
+maxint <>, <, etc.
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Data Types & Data Structures
• Simple Data types: also known as atomic data types have no
component parts. E.g. int, char, float, etc.
21 3.14 ‘a’
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What is data structure?
• A particular way of storing and organizing data in a computer so that
it can be used efficiently and effectively.
• Data structure is the logical or mathematical model of a particular
organization of data.
• A group of data elements grouped together under one name.
• For example, an array of integers
Data Types & Data Structures
• Structured Data types: can be broken into component parts. E.g. an
object, array, set, file, etc. Example: a student object.
NameA H M A D
Age 20
C S C
Branch
A Component part
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Types of Data Structures
Array
Linked List
Queue Stack
Tree
There are many, but we named a few. We’ll learn these
data structures in great detail!
The Need for Data Structures
• Goal: to organize data
• Criteria: to facilitate efficient
• storage of data
• retrieval of data
• manipulation of data
• Design Issue:
• select and design appropriate data types
(This is the main motivation to learn and understand data
structures)
Data Structure Operations
(Demonstrate using class room example!)
Navigating
Accessing each data element exactly once so that certain
items in the data may be processed
Searching
Finding the location of the data element (key) in the
structure
Insertion
Adding a new data element to the structure
Data Structure Operations
• Deletion
• Removing a data element from the structure
• Sorting
• Arrange the data elements in a logical order
(ascending/descending)
• Merging
• Combining data elements from two or more data structures
into one
What is algorithm?
A finite set of instructions which accomplish a particular task
A method or process to solve a problem
Transforms input of a problem to output
Algorithm = Input + Process + Output
Algorithm development is an art – it needs practice, practice and only practice!
What is a good algorithm?
It must be correct
It must be finite (in terms of time and size)
It must terminate
It must be unambiguous
Which step is next?
It must be space and time efficient
A program is an instance of an algorithm, written in some specific programming
language
A simple algorithm
Problem: Find maximum of a, b, c
Algorithm
Input = a, b, c
Output = max
Process
o Let max = a
o If b > max then
max = b
o If c > max then
max = c
o Display max
Order is very important!!!
Algorithm development: Basics
Clearly identify:
what output is required?
what is the input?
What steps are required to transform input into
output
o The most crucial bit
o Needs problem solving skills
o A problem can be solved in many different ways
o Which solution, amongst the different possible solutions
is optimal?
How to express an algorithm?
• A sequence of steps to solve a problem
• We need a way to express this sequence of
steps
1. Natural language (NL) is an obvious choice, but
not a good choice. Why?
o NLs are notoriously ambiguous (unclear)
2. Programming language (PL) is another choice,
but again not a good choice. Why?
o Algorithm should be PL independent
We need some balance
o We need PL independence
o We need clarity
o Pseudo-code provides the right balance
What is Pseudo-code?
• Pseudo-code is a short hand way of describing a computer
program
• Rather than using the specific syntax of a computer language,
more general wording is used
• It is a mixture of NL and PL expressions, in a systematic way
• Using pseudo-code, it is easier for a non-programmer to
understand the general workings of the program
Pseudo-code: General Guidelines
• Use PLs construct that are consistent with modern high
level languages, e.g. C++, Java, ...
• Use appropriate comments for clarity
• Be simple and precise
Components of Pseudo-code
• Expressions
Standard mathematical symbols are used
o Left arrow sign (←) as the assignment operator in assignment statements
(equivalent to the = operator in Java)
o Equal sign (=) as the equality relation in Boolean expressions (equivalent to the "=
=" relation in Java)
o For example
Sum ← 0
Sum ← Sum + 5
What is the final value of sum?
Components of Pseudo-code (cont.)
• Decision structures (if-then-else logic)
if condition then
true-actions
[else
false-actions]
We use indentation to indicate what actions should be included in the true-
actions and false-actions
For example
if marks > 50 then
print “Congratulation, you are passed!”
else
print “Sorry, you are failed!”
end if
What will be the output if marks are equal to 75?
Components of Pseudo-code (cont.)
• Loops (Repetition)
• Pre-condition loops
o While loops
• while condition do actions
• We use indentation to indicate what actions should be included in
the loop actions
• For example
while counter < 5 do
print “Welcome to CS204!”
counter ← counter + 1
end while
What will be the output if counter is initialised to 0, 7?
Components of Pseudo-code (cont.)
• Loops (Repetition)
• Pre-condition loops
o For loops
• for variable-increment-definition do actions
• For example
for counter ← 0; counter < 5; counter ←
counter + 2 do
print “Welcome to CS204!”
end for
What will be the output?
Components of Pseudo-code (cont.)
• Loops (Repetition)
Post-condition loops
o Do loops
• do actions while condition
• For example
do
print “Welcome to CS204!”
counter ← counter + 1
while counter < 5
What will be the output, if counter was initialised to 10?
The body of a post-condition loop must execute at least once
Components of Pseudo-code (cont.)
• Method declarations
• Return_type method_name (parameter_list)
method_body
• For example
• integer sum ( integer num1, integer
num2)
• start
• result ← num1 + num2
• end
• Method calls
object.method (args)
For example
mycalculator.sum(num1, num2)
Components of Pseudo-code (cont.)
• Method returns
return value
For example
integer sum ( integer num1, integer num2)
start
result ← num1 + num2
return result
end
Components of Pseudo-code (cont.)
• Comments
• /* Multiple line comments go here. */
• // Single line comments go here
• Some people prefer braces {}, for comments
• Arrays
A[i] represents the ith cell in the array A.
The cells of an n-celled array A are indexed from A[0] to A[n − 1] (consistent
with Java).
Algorithm Design: Practice
Example 1: Determining even/odd number
A number divisible by 2 is considered an even number, while a number which is not divisible by 2
is considered an odd number. Write pseudo-code to display first N odd/even numbers.
Example 2: Computing Weekly Wages
Gross pay depends on the pay rate and the number of hours worked per week. However, if you
work more than 40 hours, you get paid time-and-a-half for all hours worked over 40. Write the
pseudo-code to compute gross pay given pay rate and hours worked
Even/ Odd Numbers
Input range
for num←0; num<=range; num←num+1 do
if num % 2 = 0 then
print num is even
else
print num is odd
endif
endfor
Algorithm Design: Practice
• Example 1: Determining even/odd number
• A number divisible by 2 is considered an even number, while a number
which is not divisible by 2 is considered an odd number. Write pseudo-code
to display first N odd/even numbers.
• Example 2: Computing Weekly Wages
Gross pay depends on the pay rate and the number of hours worked per
week. However, if you work more than 40 hours, you get paid time-and-a-
half for all hours worked over 40. Write the pseudo-code to compute gross
pay given pay rate and hours worked
Even/ Odd Numbers
Input range
for num←0; num<=range; num←num+1 do
if num % 2 = 0 then
print num is even
else
print num is odd
endif
endfor
Computing weekly wages
Input hours_worked, pay_rate
if hours_worked <= 40 then
gross_pay ← pay_rate x hours_worked
else
basic_pay ← pay_rate x 40
over_time ← hours_worked – 40
over_time_pay ← 1.5 x pay_rate x over_time
gross_pay ← basic_pay + over_time_pay
endfor
print gross_pay
Homework
1. Write an algorithm to find the largest
of a set of numbers. You do not know
the number of numbers.
2. Write an algorithm in pseudocode
that finds the average of (n)
numbers.
For example numbers are [4,5,14,20,3,6]s
